Causation in 19th-Century Perspectives and Political Developments

Welcome to the Big Picture: Causation in the 19th Century

Welcome! You’ve made it to the final part of Unit 7. This chapter is all about connecting the dots. In AP European History, "Causation" means looking at why things happened and what they caused later on. Think of the 19th century like a giant row of dominoes: a scientific discovery in a lab could lead to a revolution in a colony thousands of miles away.

Don't worry if the 19th century feels like a whirlwind of "isms" (Nationalism, Darwinism, Imperialism). We are going to break down how these big ideas and political moves shaped the world leading up to the 20th century. Let’s dive in!

1. Diplomacy and the Power of "Realpolitik"

For a long time, European leaders tried to keep a "Balance of Power." But by the mid-1800s, the old rules were breaking. The Crimean War was the big "cause" here—it shattered the old system of cooperation between Great Powers and opened the door for new leaders to change the map.

The Cause: Breaking the System

Because the old alliances were gone, leaders like Cavour (in Italy) and Bismarck (in Germany) could use Realpolitik. This was a "politics of reality," where leaders did whatever was necessary to strengthen their state, rather than following a strict ideology or moral code.

The Effect: New Nations and Tensions

Bismarck used a series of calculated wars and clever diplomacy—including the Three Emperors' League and the Triple Alliance—to unify Germany and then try to keep the peace. However, these alliances often created "diplomatic tensions." By the time of the Balkan Wars and the Congress of Berlin, the competition between empires like Austria-Hungary (a dual monarchy) and Russia was reaching a boiling point.

Key Takeaway: The shift from "keeping the peace" to "strengthening the nation" (Realpolitik) led directly to the unification of Italy and Germany and created a complex web of secret treaties.

2. Nationalism: From Culture to Conflict

Nationalism didn't just happen overnight. It started with culture and ended with intense political rivalry.

The Cause: Cultural Identity

Early on, people like Fichte and the Grimm Brothers focused on a shared language and history. They wanted people to feel proud of being German, Italian, or Slavic (leading to Pan-Slavists movements). Mazzini in Italy was a key figure who pushed for a unified nation based on these liberal ideals.

The Effect: Exclusion and "New" Nationalism

As the century went on, nationalism became more aggressive. It wasn't just about "who we are," but also "who we are not." This led to increased antisemitism, seen clearly in the Dreyfus affair in France and the politics of Karl Lueger in Vienna. In response to this exclusion, Theodor Herzl began promoting Zionism, the movement for a Jewish homeland.

Did you know? The Grimm Brothers didn't just collect fairy tales for fun; they did it to prove there was a unique, shared "German soul" through their folklore!

3. Science and the "Crisis of Certainty"

In the late 1800s, science was moving so fast that it actually made people feel less sure about the world. This is often called the "Age of Progress," but it led to a very modern sense of anxiety.

The Cause: Breakthroughs in Knowledge

Max Planck (physics) and Nietzsche or Bergson (philosophy) challenged the idea that the world was a simple, predictable place. Freudian psychology suggested that humans weren't even in control of their own minds! Meanwhile, Pasteur’s germ theory revolutionized health, and quinine allowed Europeans to survive in tropical climates.

The Effect: Social Darwinism

Perhaps the most world-changing "cause" was Darwinism. While Darwin was talking about birds and plants, thinkers applied his ideas to human society. This Social Darwinism was used to justify the idea that some nations or "races" were superior to others, feeding directly into the "Age of Progress" and the justification for empire.

Quick Review: How did science cause imperialism?
1. Medical: Quinine let Europeans enter Africa without dying of malaria.
2. Military: The breech-loading rifle and machine gun gave them a massive advantage.
3. Ideological: Social Darwinism gave them a "reason" to justify conquering others.

4. New Imperialism: Causes and Global Effects

Why did Europe suddenly scramble to conquer the world in the late 19th century? It was a mix of "Because we can" and "Because we must."

The Causes: Motivations and Methods

Economics played a role (as argued by Hobson and Lenin), but so did national pride. Phrases like "The White Man's Burden" and the mission civilisatrice (civilizing mission) were used to frame imperialism as a moral duty. The Berlin Conference was the "starting gun" that carved up Africa among European powers to avoid war with each other.

The Effect: Global Resistance and Tensions

Imperialism wasn't a one-way street. It caused massive global effects:
- Resistance: Examples include Zulu resistance in Africa, the Sepoy Mutiny in India, and the Boxer Rebellion in China.
- Transformation: Japan responded with the Meiji Restoration, rapidly modernizing to avoid being conquered.
- Conflict: Imperial rivalries led to "near-miss" wars, like the Fashoda crisis and the Moroccan crises.
- Reform: Reports of brutality led to groups like the Congo Reform Association.

5. 19th-Century Culture: A Mirror of Society

Art and literature are great "evidence" for how people felt during these changes. As the century progressed, the style of art shifted based on what was happening in politics and science.

Romanticism (Early 19th Century)

Cause: A reaction against the cold logic of the Enlightenment and the "smoke" of the Industrial Revolution.
Key Figures: Goya, Caspar David Friedrich, Beethoven, and poets like Wordsworth, Byron, and the Shelleys. They focused on emotion, nature, and nationalism.

Realism (Mid-19th Century)

Cause: The harsh reality of city life and the failures of the 1848 revolutions.
Key Figures: Dickens, Courbet, Tolstoy, and Zola. They wanted to show life exactly as it was, including the struggles of the poor.

Modernism and Impressionism (Late 19th Century)

Cause: New technologies (like cameras) and new scientific ideas about light and the human mind.
Key Figures: Monet, Cezanne, Picasso, and Van Gogh. Art became less about "the real world" and more about how the artist felt or how light hit an object.

Key Takeaway: Culture moved from Emotion (Romanticism) to Reality (Realism) to Subjectivity (Modernism) as the 19th century became more complex and uncertain.

Summary Checklist for Success

To master Unit 7 causation, make sure you can explain:
1. How the Crimean War caused the end of the Concert of Europe.
2. How Bismarck used Realpolitik to unify Germany.
3. Why Social Darwinism and new tech (machine guns, quinine) caused the New Imperialism.
4. How global reactions like the Meiji Restoration or Boxer Rebellion were caused by European expansion.
5. Why the "Age of Progress" eventually led to the "Crisis of Certainty" in science and philosophy (Planck, Freud, Nietzsche).

Don't worry if this seems like a lot of names! Focus on the "Why" (Causation) and use the names as examples to prove your points in your essays. You've got this!