Option B: Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790)
Welcome to your comprehensive study guide for Edmund Burke’s Reflections on the Revolution in France. This text is a foundational piece of political philosophy studied under Unit A2 2 (Option B: Political Ideas) for CCEA Government and Politics.
Don't worry if political philosophy feels intimidating at first! We will break Burke's arguments down into simple, memorable concepts so you can master your 1-hour 30-minute exam (60 marks) with confidence.
---1. Historical Context: Why Did Burke Write Reflections?
To understand Edmund Burke's ideas, you first need to understand what he was reacting against.
Who was Edmund Burke?
Edmund Burke (1729–1797) was an Irish-born British statesman, orator, and philosopher. Politically, he was a member of the Whig party in the British Parliament. He was not a backwards-looking extremist; he was a practical politician who believed in constitutional government.
The Catalyst: What Triggered the Book?
Burke published his work in November 1790 under the full title: Reflections on the Revolution in France, and on the Proceedings in Certain Societies in London Relative to that Event: In a Letter Intended to Have Been Sent to a Gentleman in Paris.
Two main events triggered Burke to write it:
1. The Outbreak of the French Revolution (1789): French revolutionaries overthrew the absolute monarchy, abolished feudalism, and attempted to rebuild society from scratch based on abstract philosophical theories.
2. Dr. Richard Price’s Sermon: In London, a nonconformist minister named Dr. Richard Price gave a sermon to the "Revolution Society" praising the French Revolution and suggesting that the British people should follow France's radical example.
Did You Know?
Burke wrote and published Reflections in 1790, during the early, relatively peaceful phase of the French Revolution. Long before the execution of King Louis XVI and the "Reign of Terror" (1793–1794), Burke remarkably predicted that trying to rebuild a society overnight based on abstract theories would end in chaos, bloodshed, and military dictatorship!
Key Takeaway: Burke wrote Reflections in 1790 as a direct warning against importing radical French revolutionary ideas into Britain.
---2. Core Themes and Political Arguments
Burke’s philosophy is the cornerstone of modern conservatism. Let’s break down his six core arguments:
A. Human Nature and Imperfection
Burke held a deeply sceptical view of human reason:
• Flawed Human Reason: Burke argued that human beings are naturally imperfect, prone to passion, and easily corrupted when given sudden, unchecked power.
• The Danger of Political Rationalism: He rejected a priori reasoning (building political systems purely out of abstract ideas cooked up in an armchair). Real humans do not behave like theoretical models.
• "Prejudice" as a Guide: When Burke uses the word "prejudice", he does not mean bigotry. He means inherited common sense, custom, and habits passed down through generations. Burke argued that when a crisis hits, individual intellect often fails, but established cultural traditions give people an immediate moral compass.
B. The Organic State and the Generational Social Contract
Unlike liberal thinkers who viewed society as a simple business contract that can be cancelled at any time, Burke viewed society as a living organism.
• The Organic Analogy: Society is like a giant, ancient oak tree. It grows slowly over centuries. If you try to dig it up and replace it overnight, it will die.
• The True Social Contract: Burke redefined the social contract as:
"A partnership not only between those who are living, but between those who are living, those who are dead, and those who are to be born."
• Our Duty: The current generation does not "own" society outright; we are custodians. We have a duty to honour the heritage of our ancestors (the dead) and protect it for our descendants (the unborn).
C. Tradition, Prescription, and Accumulated Wisdom
Why should we respect old institutions like Parliament, the Crown, or the Church?
• Prescription: Burke argued for the doctrine of prescription—the idea that laws, institutions, and customs are validated simply because they have survived the test of time.
• Accumulated Wisdom: An ancient institution represents the collective trial-and-error wisdom of millions of people over hundreds of years. The intellect of an individual philosopher can never match the collective experience of history.
D. "Change to Conserve" (Reform vs. Revolution)
One of the most important principles in Burke’s thought is his approach to political reform:
"A state without the means of some change is without the means of its conservation."
• Pragmatic Reform: Burke was not opposed to change. He believed that institutions must adapt gradually to new circumstances in order to survive.
• Pruning vs. Uprooting: Think of a gardener: you prune dead branches to keep the plant alive (reform), but you do not burn the entire garden to the ground (revolution).
• Burke supported historical reforms like the 1688 Glorious Revolution and the American Revolution because they sought to restore and protect ancient constitutional liberties, whereas the French Revolution completely destroyed existing structures.
E. Critique of Abstract "Rights of Man"
Burke made a vital distinction between two very different ideas of human rights:
• Abstract / Metaphysical Rights: The French Revolution proclaimed universal, abstract "Rights of Men". Burke argued these were dangerous fantasies because they ignored real-world human nature, social circumstances, and duties.
• Prescriptive / Inherited Rights: Burke strongly defended real, practical civil liberties rooted in history and law—such as the rights guaranteed to English citizens under the Magna Carta or the Bill of Rights 1689. These rights work because they are inherited legal protections, not theoretical concepts.
F. Natural Hierarchy, Aristocracy, and the "Little Platoons"
• Natural Hierarchy & Property: Burke believed that social equality is an illusion. Society naturally produces social classes, and an hereditary aristocracy provides a stable, experienced governing class that protects property rights against the passions of the mob.
• The "Little Platoons": Burke described local communities, families, churches, and civic associations as our "little platoons". It is within these small, local groups that individuals learn loyalty, civic duty, affection, and genuine patriotism before applying them to the wider nation.
Key Takeaway: Burke advocated for an organic society governed by accumulated tradition, natural hierarchy, prescriptive rights, and gradual reform ("change to conserve"), while rejecting abstract revolutionary theories.
---3. Summary Memory Aid: The "P-O-R-C-H" Framework
Use the acronym P-O-R-C-H to remember Burke’s key pillars during your exam:
• P – Prescription: Institutions and traditions gain legitimacy over time through accumulated wisdom.
• O – Organic Society: Society is a living entity and a contract between the dead, the living, and the unborn.
• R – Real (Prescriptive) Rights: Rights are inherited through national law and custom, not abstract universal theory.
• C – Change to Conserve: Gradual, pragmatic reform is essential to preserve the constitutional order.
• H – Hierarchy & "Little Platoons": Natural social order, property rights, and local communities nurture civic virtue.
4. Common Exam Traps and Pitfalls to Avoid
Examiners frequently note common errors that cost students valuable marks. Make sure you avoid these:
• Trap 1: Claiming Burke was an extreme reactionary who opposed all change.
Correction: Burke was a Whig reformer! He explicitly stated that a state without the means of change cannot conserve itself. He supported gradual, practical reform to fix flaws, but opposed sudden, destructive revolution.
• Trap 2: Saying Burke was against human rights.
Correction: Burke did not reject rights entirely; he rejected abstract, metaphysical "rights of man". He actively defended prescriptive, inherited civil rights grounded in constitutional history (such as the Bill of Rights 1689).
• Trap 3: Thinking Burke wrote in response to the Reign of Terror.
Correction: Burke published Reflections in 1790, well before the 1793–1794 Reign of Terror. His critique was prophetic: he predicted the terror and dictatorship before they occurred.
• Trap 4: Forgetting the exam format.
Correction: In Unit A2 2, you will be given an unseen source extract. You must carefully analyse and evaluate the provided source for Questions 1 & 2 before synthesising your wider knowledge of Burke's set text in the extended essay questions.
5. Quick Revision Review
Test your understanding with these quick review checks:
1. Why did Burke prefer historical experience over abstract reason? (Because human intellect is flawed, whereas tradition contains the accumulated wisdom of generations).
2. What did Burke mean by the "little platoons"? (Local institutions, families, and communities that teach individuals social duty and love of country).
3. How did Burke define the social contract? (A partnership across generations: the dead, the living, and the unborn).
4. What is the difference between prescriptive rights and abstract natural rights? (Prescriptive rights are inherited through legal tradition and history; abstract rights are theoretical, unworkable ideals detached from reality).