Roman sources: Tacitus, Pliny the Younger and Trajan

Introduction to Roman Sources

Welcome to your study of the Roman perspective on early Christianity! So far in your course, you have mostly looked at the "inside" story through the New Testament (like the book of Acts). However, to truly understand the world of the early Church, we need to see how the Roman authorities and historians viewed this new movement.

In this chapter, we focus on three major Roman figures: Tacitus, Pliny the Younger, and Emperor Trajan. These sources are vital because they provide some of the earliest non-Christian evidence for the existence of Jesus and the spread of his followers. They also help us understand why Christians were often viewed with suspicion and faced legal trouble in the Roman Empire.

1. Tacitus and the Neronian Persecution

Who was Tacitus? He was a high-ranking Roman official and a very respected historian. In his famous work Annals (specifically Annals 15:44), written around 116 CE, he describes events that took place roughly 50 years earlier.

The Great Fire of Rome (64 CE)

A massive fire broke out in Rome during the reign of Emperor Nero. Rumours spread that Nero himself had started the fire to make room for his new palace. To stop these rumours, Nero needed a scapegoat—someone to blame. He chose the Christians.

What Tacitus tells us:

• Origin of the name: Tacitus correctly identifies that the name "Christian" comes from Christus, who was executed by the procurator Pontius Pilate during the reign of Tiberius.
• Roman Attitude: Tacitus was no friend to Christians. He calls Christianity a "mischievous superstition" that had spread from Judea to Rome. He describes them as people "hated for their abominations."
• The Persecution: Nero didn't just arrest them; he turned their deaths into public entertainment. Christians were covered in wild animal skins and torn by dogs, or nailed to crosses and set on fire to serve as night-time torches in Nero’s gardens.
• Public Reaction: Interestingly, Tacitus notes that even though the Romans disliked Christians, Nero’s cruelty was so extreme that people began to feel pity for them. They felt the Christians were being killed to satisfy one man's cruelty rather than for the public good.

Key Takeaway: Tacitus provides historical evidence for the execution of Jesus and shows that by 64 CE, Christians were a distinct group in Rome, separate from Jews, and were already being used as scapegoats.

2. Pliny the Younger’s Dilemma

Who was Pliny? Pliny the Younger was the Roman Governor of Bithynia-Pontus (modern-day Turkey) around 112 CE. Unlike Nero, Pliny wasn't a "mad" emperor; he was a lawyer and administrator trying to do his job correctly.

The Problem in Bithynia

Pliny found that Christianity was spreading like a "contagion" (an infectious disease) through cities, villages, and even the countryside. This was causing a threat to people's income because people stopped buying sacrificial animals, and the pagan temples were being deserted.

Pliny’s Letter to Trajan (Letter 10:96)

Pliny wrote to Emperor Trajan because he wasn't sure how to handle the Christian "problem." His letter reveals several important things about early Christian practice:

• The "Test": To see if someone was truly a Christian, Pliny would tell them to offer incense and wine to a statue of the Emperor and the Roman gods, and to curse Christ. He believed that no "real" Christian would ever do these things.
• Christian Worship: Through his interrogations, Pliny learned that Christians met on a fixed day before daylight. They sang a hymn to Christ "as if to a god" and bound themselves by an oath (sacramentum) not to commit crimes like theft, adultery, or fraud.
• The "Crimes": Pliny admitted he couldn't find any real crimes. He just found a "depraved, excessive superstition." However, he executed those who refused to recant simply because of their stubbornness and "unbending inflexibility" in refusing to obey a Roman governor.

3. Emperor Trajan’s Response

Who was Trajan? He was the Roman Emperor from 98 to 117 CE. His reply to Pliny (Letter 10:97) established the official Roman policy toward Christians for many years.

Trajan's Policy (The "Don't Ask, Don't Tell" of Rome)

Trajan’s instructions were very specific and surprisingly moderate for the time:

1. Do not seek them out: The Roman government should not spend time or resources hunting for Christians.
2. Due Process: If someone is formally accused and found guilty of being a Christian, they must be punished.
3. The "Pardon": If a person denies being a Christian and proves it by worshipping the Roman gods, they should be pardoned, regardless of their past.
4. No Anonymous Tips: Trajan strictly forbade the use of anonymous accusations, calling them "unworthy of our age."

Key Takeaway: Trajan wanted to maintain social order. He didn't want a witch-hunt, but he couldn't allow people to openly defy Roman authority or refuse to participate in the state religion (the Imperial Cult).

4. Why were the Romans so Hostile? (AO2 Analysis)

Looking at these sources, we can see the specific reasons for hostility mentioned in your syllabus:

• Refusal to accept the divinity of the Emperor: This was seen as treason. If you wouldn't offer a small pinch of incense to the Emperor's statue, you were viewed as a political rebel.
• Perceived Exclusivism: Christians claimed their God was the only God. To Romans, who worshipped many gods, this felt antisocial and "atheistic" (because Christians denied the "real" gods of Rome).
• Threat to Income: As Pliny noted, when people became Christians, they stopped spending money at temples. This hurt the local economy, especially the animal trade and silversmiths (as seen in Acts 19).
• Misinterpretation of Practices: Tacitus and Pliny both call Christianity a "superstition." Because Christians met in secret and spoke of "eating the body" of Christ, rumours of cannibalism and immorality often spread.
• Social Unrest: The rapid spread of this "contagion" worried officials like Pliny. Any group that grew quickly and met in secret was seen as a potential source of social unrest or riot.

Quick Review: Remember that to a Roman Governor, the main problem wasn't what Christians believed in their hearts; it was their disobedience to the state and the potential for public disorder.

Summary Table: Comparing the Sources

Common Mistake to Avoid: Don't assume that the Roman Empire was always trying to kill all Christians. Trajan’s letter shows that the government actually tried to avoid active persecution unless it was forced upon them by public accusations or clear social disruption.

Cross-Reference: For more on how Christians responded to this pressure, see the chapter on 1 Peter and the Christian response to persecution.