Introduction to Herodotus and The Histories
Welcome to your study of Herodotus! Often called the "Father of History," Herodotus was a Greek writer who lived in the 5th century BC. His massive work, The Histories, focuses on the Persian Wars and why the Greeks and "barbarians" (non-Greeks) came into conflict.
In this module, "Invention of the Barbarian," we look at Herodotus not just as a reporter of facts, but as a creator of stereotypes. He helps us see how the Greeks defined themselves by looking at how different the Persians were. Don't worry if the book numbers seem confusing at first—we only focus on specific sections that show the contrast between Greek and Barbarian culture.
Note: For more on the general concept of "Barbarian," see the chapter "Greeks and barbarians: polarities and stereotypes."
Book 1: Origins and Persian Customs
Herodotus starts his work with a proem (an introduction). He says his goal is to prevent the great deeds of both Greeks and "barbarians" from being forgotten. He also wants to find the cause of their fighting. This is a very "Greek" approach—searching for logic and reasons behind events.
How the Persians Live (1.131–140)
Herodotus describes Persian customs to show how different they are from the Greeks. This is a classic example of polarity (comparing two opposites):
- Religion: Unlike Greeks, Persians do not build statues, temples, or altars. They think it is foolish to imagine gods have human forms. They sacrifice to the sun, moon, earth, fire, water, and winds.
- Sacrifice: When a Persian sacrifices, they don't use fire, libations (pouring drinks for gods), or flutes. Instead, they wear a crown of myrtle and pray for the well-being of the King and the whole Persian community, rather than just themselves.
- Social Habits: Persians celebrate birthdays with huge feasts. They are famous for drinking lots of wine. Interestingly, Herodotus claims they deliberate on important matters while drunk, then reconsider them the next day when sober.
- Values: To a Persian, the most important thing is bravery in battle. They also value having many sons. They believe the greatest sin is lying, followed by owing money (because debtors usually have to lie).
Key Takeaway: Herodotus presents the Persians as a mix of admirable traits (honesty, bravery) and "alien" habits (no temples, strange sacrifice rituals).
Book 2: Connections with Egypt (2.48–58)
In this section, Herodotus explores how Greek religion might actually be connected to "barbarian" cultures, specifically Egypt. He suggests that many Greek rituals, like the festivals of Dionysus, were actually brought to Greece from Egypt.
This is important because it shows that Herodotus wasn't always "anti-barbarian." He respected the ancient wisdom of Egypt and believed that the Greeks learned a lot from them. This suggests that the "barbarian" world was not just a place of enemies, but a source of culture.
Book 4: The Wild Others (Amazons and Libyans)
Herodotus travels to the edges of the known world to describe people who are even more "barbarian" than the Persians.
The Amazons (4.110–117)
The Amazons are mythical female warriors. Herodotus calls them "man-killers." He tells a story about how they ended up living near the Scythians.
The Gender Flip: The Amazons refuse to live like traditional women. They hunt, ride horses, and fight in wars. This would have been shocking to a 5th-century Greek man, whose wife stayed at home. The Amazons represent the "world turned upside down."
The Libyans (4.168–181)
Herodotus lists various tribes in Libya. Some follow Egyptian customs, while others have very strange habits, like the tribe where men have many wives, or tribes that eat locusts. By describing these "extreme" barbarians, Herodotus makes the Persians seem a bit more "civilized" by comparison!
Book 7: Xerxes and the Great Invasion
This book focuses on Xerxes, the Persian King, and his plan to conquer Greece. It highlights the "barbarian" character of the Persian monarchy.
The Persian Council (7.8–19)
Xerxes holds a meeting to decide whether to invade Greece. This scene shows the difference between Persian tyranny and Greek democracy:
- Xerxes: Driven by a desire for glory and revenge for his father, Darius. He is arrogant and believes Persia should own everything the sun shines upon.
- Mardonius: A "yes-man" who tells Xerxes what he wants to hear, insulting the Greeks as weak.
- Artabanus: The wise advisor who warns Xerxes about the dangers of hubris (excessive pride). He says the gods like to strike down anything that is too big or too proud.
The Hellespont (7.33–37)
When Xerxes tries to bridge the Hellespont (the sea between Asia and Europe), a storm destroys it. Xerxes becomes so angry that he orders the sea to be whipped 300 times and has pairs of fetters (chains) thrown into the water.
Why it matters: To a Greek reader, this is the ultimate act of a "barbarian" tyrant. It shows Xerxes trying to enslave nature itself. It is a clear sign of hubris.
Xerxes and Demaratus (7.100–105)
This is one of the most important conversations in the book. Xerxes asks Demaratus (an exiled Spartan king) if the Greeks will really fight against his massive army.
- Xerxes' view: People only fight if they are afraid of a master who whips them. Since the Greeks are "free," they will surely run away.
- Demaratus' view: The Greeks are not "free" to do whatever they want. They have a master called Law (Nomos). They fear Law more than the Persians fear the King. Law forbids them from ever retreating in battle.
Book 8: The Battle of Salamis and Greek Identity
Book 8 covers the famous naval battle of Salamis and the aftermath.
Artemisia: The Female Commander (8.67–69, 8.87–93)
Artemisia was the Queen of Halicarnassus and a commander in Xerxes' navy.
Did you know? Herodotus was also from Halicarnassus, which might be why he gives her so much attention!
- She is the only one who gives Xerxes good advice (to avoid the battle at Salamis). He ignores her.
- During the battle, she is so clever that she sinks a friendly ship to escape the Greeks. Xerxes, watching from a distance, thinks she destroyed an enemy and says: "My men have become women, and my women men."
The Retreat and the "Boat Story" (8.117–120)
After losing at Salamis, Xerxes flees back to Asia. Herodotus tells a story (though he's not sure he believes it) about Xerxes being on a crowded ship during a storm. To save the King, the Persian nobles voluntarily jump overboard and drown. This shows the extreme loyalty (or slavery) of the Persians to their King.
The Definition of "Greekness" (8.140–144)
At the end of Book 8, the Persians try to bribe the Athenians to switch sides. The Athenians refuse and give a beautiful definition of what it means to be Greek (to Hellenikon). They say they could never betray Greece because of:
- Shared Blood: They are all one "race."
- Shared Language: They all speak Greek.
- Shared Religion: They have the same temples and sacrifices.
- Shared Customs: They live the same way.
Key Takeaway: The "Barbarian" invasion actually helped the Greeks figure out who they were. By fighting a common enemy, they realized they shared a single identity.
Quick Review: Herodotus' View of the Barbarian
Common Mistakes to Avoid:
- Don't think Herodotus hated all non-Greeks. He often admired Persian honesty or Egyptian wisdom.
- Don't forget the concept of hubris. It’s central to why Xerxes fails.
- Remember that Herodotus uses these stories to teach Greek values, like freedom and law.
Summary Table: The Great Polarities
Persians (Barbarians) vs. Greeks
Tyranny (One master) vs. Democracy/Freedom
Fear (The Whip) vs. Duty (The Law)
Hubris (Over-reaching) vs. Sophrosyne (Moderation)
Luxury vs. Simplicity