Pragmatics and discourse

Introduction to Pragmatics and Discourse

Welcome to one of the most exciting parts of your OCR A Level English Language and Literature course! So far, you might have looked at individual words (lexis) or how sentences are built (grammar). But Pragmatics and Discourse are where the "magic" happens. These two language levels look at the "big picture" and the "hidden meanings."

Think of it like this: If Lexis is the ingredients and Grammar is the recipe, then Pragmatics is the atmosphere of the dinner party, and Discourse is the way the whole evening is structured from start to finish. Understanding these levels is essential for Component 01 (comparing spoken and written texts) and Component 02 (analysing drama and poetry).

Note: For more on the smaller building blocks of language, see our chapters on Lexis and Semantics or Grammar and Morphology.

1. Pragmatics: Reading Between the Lines

Pragmatics is the study of how context affects meaning. It is the difference between what we literally say and what we actually mean.

What is "Context"?

In your exam, you will often hear about Context of Production (where and when a text was made) and Context of Reception (where and when it is being read or heard). Pragmatics relies heavily on these. For example, if a teacher says "The bell has gone" at the end of a lesson, the pragmatic meaning is "Pack your bags and leave." If a security guard says it at a prison, the meaning is very different!

Key Concepts in Pragmatics

• Implied Meaning (Inference): This is the "hidden" message. If someone asks, "Are you going to eat all that?", they aren't just looking for a "yes" or "no." They might be implying that you are being greedy or offering to help you finish it.
• Politeness and "Face": This is vital for Component 02 (Plays). We all have a "face" (our self-image). Positive Face is our need to be liked, and Negative Face is our need to be independent. When characters in Othello or A Streetcar Named Desire are rude or polite, they are managing "Face Needs."
• Deixis: These are "pointing" words that only make sense if you know the context.
  — Person Deixis: I, you, him.
  — Spatial Deixis: Here, there, left, right.
  — Temporal Deixis: Now, yesterday, then.

Quick Tip: If you find a text where the speaker uses lots of deixis (like "Put that over there now"), it suggests the speaker and listener are in the same physical space, likely in a spontaneous spoken interaction.

Key Takeaway: Pragmatics is about intent. Always ask: "Why is the speaker saying this in this specific way to this specific person?"

2. Discourse: The Big Picture

While pragmatics looks at hidden meanings, Discourse looks at how a whole text is put together. It is the study of language units larger than a single sentence.

Cohesion and Coherence

For a text to work, it needs to stick together.
— Cohesion: The "glue" that holds sentences together (like using the word "however" or "therefore").
— Coherence: Whether the text actually makes sense as a whole.

Spoken vs. Written Discourse

In Component 01, you will compare a text from the OCR (EMC) Anthology with an unseen text. You must look at their Mode (is it spoken, written, or "multi-modal" like a transcript of a podcast?).

• Spoken Discourse: Look for Adjacency Pairs (like a question and an answer) and Turn-taking. Is one person dominating the conversation? Is there a Skip-connector (shifting the topic back, e.g., "Anyway, as I was saying...")?
• Written Discourse: Look at the Layout and Structure. Does it have a clear beginning, middle, and end? Does it use headings or bullet points?

Narrative Discourse

In Component 03 (Reading as a Writer), you will study how novelists like Charlotte Brontë or Ian McEwan structure their stories.
— Handling of Time: Does the story jump around (analepsis/flashbacks)?
— Narrative Voice: Who is telling the story and how much do they know?

Did you know? The way a story is structured can change your entire reaction to a character. A sudden moment of crisis in a narrative is a discourse-level choice designed to grip the reader.

Key Takeaway: Discourse is about structure. Always ask: "How is this text organized, and how does that help the reader follow the message?"

3. Applying Pragmatics and Discourse to Your Exams

Component 01: Exploring Non-Fiction and Spoken Texts

When comparing the Anthology text to the unseen text, look at the Purpose. A text intended to persuade will use different pragmatic strategies (like Flattery) than a text intended to inform. Look for Shared Knowledge—does the writer assume the audience already knows certain things? That is a pragmatic choice.

Component 02: The Language of Poetry and Plays

In Section B (Plays), pay close attention to Paralinguistic Features (gestures, facial expressions). These are written in italics as stage directions but are huge clues for Pragmatics. If a character says "I love you" while (looking away coldly), the pragmatics tell us the words might be a lie.

Component 03: Reading as a Writer

When you write your 500-word narrative opening for Section B, you are making Discourse choices. You might choose to start in the middle of the action (in media res) to create mystery. In your 250-word commentary, you must explain why you chose that structure.

4. Common Mistakes to Avoid

• Mistake: Simply listing "pointing words" without explaining them.
  Fix: Instead of saying "The author uses deixis," say "The use of spatial deixis like 'here' creates a sense of immediacy and draws the reader into the specific setting."
• Mistake: Confusing "Context" with "History."
  Fix: You don't need a history lesson. Only mention the Context of Production if it actually helps explain the language choices in the text.
• Mistake: Forgetting that "Discourse" applies to poetry too.
  Fix: Look at how a poem develops from the first stanza to the last. Is there a shift in tone or a "volta" (turn)? That is a discourse-level observation!

Summary Checklist

Before you finish this chapter, make sure you can define:
1. Pragmatics (Meaning in context).
2. Implied Meaning (The "hidden" message).
3. Deixis (Pointing words).
4. Discourse (Overall structure).
5. Cohesion (How the text sticks together).

Don't worry if these seem tricky at first! The more you practice looking at real texts—like the ones in your OCR (EMC) Anthology—the more natural it will become to spot these patterns.