Developmental area: Bandura et al. (1961) and Chaney et al. (2004)

Q: What are the key assumptions of the developmental area in psychology?

The developmental area assumes that human behaviour changes and matures systematically across the lifespan, driven by biological maturation, socialisation, and external environmental learning experiences.

Q: How does the behaviourist perspective explain the acquisition of behaviour?

The behaviourist perspective assumes humans are born as blank slates ( tabula rasa ) and that all behaviour is learned from the environment through classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or social learning.

Q: What was the aim of Bandura, Ross, & Ross (1961)?

To investigate whether young children would imitate aggressive behaviours displayed by an adult role model, and whether this imitation was influenced by the gender of the child and the model.

Q: How were participants matched in Bandura et al. (1961) to ensure experimental control?

Children were assessed on four 5-point rating scales by an experimenter and a nursery teacher to determine baseline aggression, achieving high inter-rater reliability (\(r = 0.89\)) before matched group allocation.

Q: What was the purpose of Stage 2 (aggression arousal) in Bandura et al.'s procedure?

Stage 2 subjected all children to mild frustration to establish an equal baseline emotional readiness to act aggressively before being tested for imitation.

Q: What were the key findings of Bandura et al. (1961) regarding aggression imitation and gender?

Children exposed to aggressive models imitated significantly more physical and verbal aggression; boys showed more imitative physical aggression (especially with male models), while girls showed more verbal aggression with female models.

Q: What was the aim of the contemporary study by Chaney et al. (2004)?

To investigate whether positive reinforcement using a novel 'Funhaler' device would improve adherence to paediatric asthma medication regimes compared to standard spacer devices.

Q: How did the Funhaler design utilize operant conditioning to reinforce correct medication compliance?

The Funhaler included a spinning disk and whistle that only activated when the child inhaled deeply with an airtight mask seal, providing immediate positive reinforcement for correct technique.

Q: What were the main quantitative findings in Chaney et al. (2004)?

Parent-reported adherence increased from 59% with standard spacers to 81% with the Funhaler, and successful delivery of 4+ breath cycles rose from 50% to 80% (\(p < 0.05\)).

Q: How does Chaney et al. extend the findings of Bandura et al. regarding external influences on behaviour?

While Bandura showed how external models lead to negative, maladaptive behaviours (aggression) in a lab, Chaney demonstrated how external rewards shape positive, health-promoting behaviours in real-world home settings.

Psychology - H167 · Cambridge OCR AS Level · 11 min read · Updated: 27 Aug 2026

Welcome to the Developmental Area: External Influences on Children's Behaviour

Welcome! In this chapter of your OCR AS Level Psychology (H167) course, we explore how the world around us shapes who we are. Have you ever wondered why children copy what they see on TV, or why rewarding a good habit makes it stick? That is exactly what this topic investigates.

We will break down two essential core studies:

1. Classic Study: Bandura, Ross, & Ross (1961) — Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models.
2. Contemporary Study: Chaney et al. (2004) — The Funhaler study on positive reinforcement and paediatric compliance.

Don't worry if psychological terms feel overwhelming at first. We will break every concept down into clear, digestible steps with examiner tips to help you secure top marks in your Component 02 (H167/02) exam.

1. Understanding the Core Area and Perspective

A. Assumptions of the Developmental Area

The developmental area focuses on how human thoughts, feelings, and behaviours change over time. Its key assumptions include:

• Lifespan Changes: Behaviour develops, matures, and changes systematically over the human lifespan.
• Influences on Development: These changes are heavily driven by biological maturation, socialisation, and external environmental learning experiences.

B. Assumptions of the Behaviourist Perspective

Both Bandura and Chaney connect closely with the behaviourist perspective, which focuses strictly on observable behaviour rather than hidden thoughts:

• Environmental Determinism (Nurture): We are born as a blank slate (tabula rasa), and all behaviour is learned from the environment.
• Learning Mechanisms: Behaviour is acquired through:
- Classical conditioning: Learning through association.
- Operant conditioning: Learning through consequences and reinforcement (as seen in Chaney et al.).
- Social learning: Learning through observation and imitation of role models (as seen in Bandura et al.).

Quick Key Takeaway: The developmental area looks at how we change over time; the behaviourist perspective explains how external environmental experiences cause those changes.

2. Classic Study: Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961)

A. Background and Aim

Before this study, many psychologists believed in "catharsis" — the idea that watching someone else act aggressively helps vent our own anger harmlessly. Albert Bandura disagreed, suggesting that children observe and copy behaviours directly.

Aim: To determine whether young children would imitate aggressive behaviours displayed by an adult role model, and whether this imitation was influenced by the gender of the child and the gender of the model.

B. Sample and Pre-Testing

• Participants: 72 children (36 boys and 36 girls) from the Stanford University Nursery School.
• Age Range: 37 to 69 months (mean age: 52 months / approximately 4.3 years).
• Matching on Aggression: To make sure one group didn't randomly start with naturally more aggressive children, they used a matched pairs design. An experimenter and a nursery teacher who knew the children well pre-rated each child on four 5-point rating scales for baseline aggression. The correlation between the raters was very high (\(r = 0.89\)), proving high inter-rater reliability.

C. Experimental Design and Conditions

The study was a highly controlled laboratory experiment with an independent measures design (once matched). Children were divided into 9 groups (8 experimental groups and 1 control group):

• Aggressive Model Condition (\(n = 24\)): 6 boys with male model, 6 boys with female model, 6 girls with male model, 6 girls with female model.
• Non-Aggressive Model Condition (\(n = 24\)): 6 boys with male model, 6 boys with female model, 6 girls with male model, 6 girls with female model.
• Control Condition (\(n = 24\)): 24 children who observed no model at all.

D. Step-by-Step Procedure (The 3 Stages)

Stage 1: Modelling (approx. 10 minutes)
The child was brought into a room and seated at a table with potato prints and picture stickers. In the opposite corner stood a table, chair, Tinkertoy set, a mallet, and a 5-foot inflatable Bobo doll.

• Aggressive Condition: After 1 minute of playing with Tinkertoys, the model turned to the Bobo doll, punched it in the nose, threw it in the air, kicked it, and hit it with the mallet. The model repeated distinctive verbal phrases: "Sock him in the nose", "Hit him down", "Pow", and non-aggressive remarks: "He keeps coming back for more", "He sure is a tough fella".
• Non-Aggressive Condition: The model quietly assembled the Tinkertoys and completely ignored the Bobo doll.
• Control Group: Had no model in the room.

Stage 2: Aggression Arousal (Mild Frustration)
The child was taken to a second room containing attractive toys (e.g., fire engine, baby crib, doll set). After about 2 minutes of play, the experimenter told the child that these were her "very best toys" and she had decided to reserve them for other children.

Why did Bandura do this? Examiners love this question! Stage 2 ensured that all children across all conditions had an equal baseline emotional readiness and frustration level to act aggressively.

Stage 3: Test for Delayed Imitation (20 minutes)
The child was taken into a third room containing both aggressive toys (a 3-foot Bobo doll, mallet, peg board, two dart guns, tether ball) and non-aggressive toys (tea set, crayons, colouring paper, farm animals, cars). The child played for 20 minutes while being observed through a one-way mirror. Two observers recorded behaviour every 5 seconds using time sampling (giving 240 response units per child).

E. Key Findings and Results

• Imitation of Aggression: Children who observed an aggressive model showed significantly more imitative physical and verbal aggressive acts than those in the non-aggressive or control conditions.
• Inhibition Effect: Children in the non-aggressive condition showed very little aggression, often exhibiting fewer aggressive acts than the control group.
• Gender Effects: Boys showed significantly more imitative physical aggression than girls, especially when observing a male model. Girls showed more imitative verbal aggression when observing a female model.
• Male Model Influence: The male aggressive model exerted a stronger influence on both boys and girls regarding physical aggression.

F. Conclusions

• Observing a model's behaviour leads directly to learning and imitation without the need for direct reinforcement (supporting Social Learning Theory).
• Children selectively imitate behaviour based on culturally perceived sex-appropriate roles (e.g., physical aggression is seen as more male-typical).

Bandura Key Takeaway: Children do not need rewards to learn aggressive actions; merely observing an adult role model leads to direct imitation.

3. Contemporary Study: Chaney et al. (2004)

A. Background and Aim

Asthma is a chronic illness in children, but many fail to take their daily preventative medication because standard inhalers (like the Breath-a-Tech or AeroChamber) are boring or uncomfortable. Chaney et al. wanted to see if applying Skinner's principles of operant conditioning (specifically positive reinforcement) could solve this health problem.

Aim: To see whether the application of positive reinforcement using a novel device called a Funhaler would improve adherence to asthma medication regimes in young children compared to standard spacer devices.

B. Sample and Method

• Participants: 32 children (22 boys, 10 girls).
• Age Range: 1.5 to 6 years (mean age: 3.2 years).
• Asthma History: Mean asthma duration of 2.2 years.
• Sampling Method: Opportunity / volunteer sample recruited from GP and paediatric clinics in Perth, Western Australia.
• Design: Field experiment using a repeated measures design conducted in the participants' natural home environment.

C. The Funhaler Mechanism (How Positive Reinforcement Worked)

The Funhaler was an engineered spacer device that included incentive toys: a spinning disk and a whistle. The crucial feature was that the toys only spun and whistled when the child inhaled deeply and created an airtight seal around the face mask. This gave immediate sensory reward (positive reinforcement) for correct technique, without distracting the child or wasting medication.

D. Step-by-Step Procedure

1. Parents completed an initial structured questionnaire regarding their child's compliance, medication frequency, and attitudes toward their existing standard spacer.
2. Families were provided with the Funhaler for 2 weeks to use under normal prescribed routines with parental supervision.
3. Parents received random ad-hoc phone calls during the 2 weeks asking whether their child had been successfully medicated the previous day.
4. After 2 weeks, parents completed a matched post-intervention questionnaire evaluating compliance and attitudes toward the Funhaler.

E. Key Quantitative Findings

• Medication Adherence:
- Percentage of parents reporting their child took medication the previous day: 59% with standard spacer vs. 81% with Funhaler (\(p < 0.05\)).
- Success in delivering the recommended 4 or more breath cycles: 50% with standard spacer vs. 80% with Funhaler (\(p < 0.05\)).

• Attitudes and Emotional Reactions:
- Significantly fewer children showed resistance (such as crying, screaming, or fear) when using the Funhaler (3%) compared to the standard spacer (61%).
- Significantly more parents reported feeling "pleasure" with the Funhaler (68%) compared to the standard spacer (10%).

F. Conclusions

• Operant conditioning via positive reinforcement (the Funhaler's toy mechanisms) significantly improves treatment compliance and inhalation technique in young asthmatic children.
• Behavioural modification devices can improve clinical health outcomes in paediatric settings.

Chaney Key Takeaway: By pairing a health chore with immediate positive reinforcement, children learn to cooperate and follow medical routines willingly.

4. Comparison: Bandura et al. vs. Chaney et al.

A. The Common Key Theme: External Influences on Children's Behaviour

Both studies demonstrate how the external environment directly influences a child's actions:

• Bandura et al. shows that external influences (observing adult role models) lead to behaviour through observational learning and imitation (Social Learning Theory).
• Chaney et al. shows that external influences (incentives and rewards) shape behaviour through operant conditioning and positive reinforcement.

B. Methodological Differences

• Setting: Bandura conducted a highly artificial laboratory experiment; Chaney conducted a naturalistic field experiment in family homes.
• Experimental Design: Bandura used an independent measures design (matched pairs); Chaney used a repeated measures design (comparing the standard spacer to the Funhaler within the same child).
• Data Collection: Bandura gathered data via direct, structured observation behind a one-way mirror; Chaney gathered data via parent self-report questionnaires and ad-hoc phone calls.
• Time Frame: Bandura was a snapshot study (around 30 minutes total per child); Chaney was longitudinal (tracking behaviour across 2 weeks).

C. How Chaney Changes or Extends Bandura

• Type of Behaviour: Bandura investigated how external influences cause negative, maladaptive behaviours (aggression). Chaney extended this to demonstrate how external influences can build positive, health-promoting behaviours (medical compliance).
• Real-World Application: Bandura showed learning in a controlled, artificial laboratory setup. Chaney extended this knowledge by demonstrating how learning principles can be applied practically to solve real-world problems in children's everyday home environments.

5. Links to Core Debates

A. Nature vs. Nurture

• Nurture: Both studies strongly support nurture. In Bandura, children learned specific aggressive acts solely by observing their environment. In Chaney, adherence increased from 59% to 81% because the environment was modified to provide positive reinforcement.
• Nature: In Bandura, boys showed naturally higher levels of physical aggression across all groups, which could point toward biological/hormonal differences (such as testosterone).

B. Free Will vs. Determinism

• Both studies support environmental determinism. Bandura suggests children's actions are determined by the behaviours modelled around them. Chaney suggests children's compliance is determined by external reward schedules.

C. Psychology as a Science

• Both studies maintain high scientific standards. Bandura used high levels of control, standardised procedures (same toys, fixed timings), and established inter-rater reliability (\(r = 0.89\)). Chaney used quantitative measures (percentages of compliance) and statistical testing (\(p < 0.05\)).

D. Ethical Considerations

• Bandura: Protection from harm was an issue. Children were deliberately subjected to mild frustration in Stage 2, and observing aggressive adults could have taught them long-term aggressive behaviours.
• Chaney: Highly ethical. Informed consent was gained from parents, and the Funhaler actively improved children's health without compromising medication delivery.

6. Common Exam Traps and How to Avoid Them

Trap 1: Confusing Sample Characteristics with Sampling Method
Don't say: "The sample was recruited from GP clinics in Australia." (That describes the method).
Do say: "The sample consisted of 32 children (22 boys, 10 girls) aged 1.5 to 6 years with a mean asthma duration of 2.2 years." (These are characteristics).

Trap 2: Mixing Up the Two Learning Theories
• Bandura = Social Learning Theory (Role models, observation, imitation, vicarious experience).
• Chaney = Operant Conditioning (Stimulus, response, positive reinforcement, Skinnerian mechanics).
Do not claim Bandura's children were "reinforced" or that Chaney's children "imitated a model"!

Trap 3: Forgetting the Role of Stage 2 in Bandura
Always remember that Stage 2 (the aggression arousal / toy withdrawal) was essential to ensure all children shared an equal baseline urge to act aggressively before being tested in Stage 3.

Trap 4: Being Vague About the Funhaler
Do not simply write that the Funhaler was "fun". State clearly that correct breathing and an airtight seal activated the spinning disk and whistle, providing immediate positive reinforcement that strengthened correct inhaler usage.

Quick Review Summary Box

• Key Theme: External influences on children's behaviour.
• Bandura et al. (1961): 72 nursery children; lab experiment; 3 stages (modelling, arousal, delayed imitation); showed that aggression is learned via observation and imitation.
• Chaney et al. (2004): 32 asthmatic children; field experiment; 2-week trial of Funhaler vs. standard spacer; compliance rose from 59% to 81% via positive reinforcement.
• Core Link: Bandura demonstrates Social Learning Theory; Chaney demonstrates Operant Conditioning.

Quick check

Can you answer these now?

Open each question to check the key ideas from this chapter.

What are the key assumptions of the developmental area in psychology?

The developmental area assumes that human behaviour changes and matures systematically across the lifespan, driven by biological maturation, socialisation, and external environmental learning experiences.

How does the behaviourist perspective explain the acquisition of behaviour?

The behaviourist perspective assumes humans are born as blank slates (tabula rasa) and that all behaviour is learned from the environment through classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or social learning.

What was the aim of Bandura, Ross, & Ross (1961)?

To investigate whether young children would imitate aggressive behaviours displayed by an adult role model, and whether this imitation was influenced by the gender of the child and the model.

How were participants matched in Bandura et al. (1961) to ensure experimental control?

Children were assessed on four 5-point rating scales by an experimenter and a nursery teacher to determine baseline aggression, achieving high inter-rater reliability (\(r = 0.89\)) before matched group allocation.

What was the purpose of Stage 2 (aggression arousal) in Bandura et al.'s procedure?

Stage 2 subjected all children to mild frustration to establish an equal baseline emotional readiness to act aggressively before being tested for imitation.

What were the key findings of Bandura et al. (1961) regarding aggression imitation and gender?

Children exposed to aggressive models imitated significantly more physical and verbal aggression; boys showed more imitative physical aggression (especially with male models), while girls showed more verbal aggression with female models.

What was the aim of the contemporary study by Chaney et al. (2004)?

To investigate whether positive reinforcement using a novel 'Funhaler' device would improve adherence to paediatric asthma medication regimes compared to standard spacer devices.

How did the Funhaler design utilize operant conditioning to reinforce correct medication compliance?

The Funhaler included a spinning disk and whistle that only activated when the child inhaled deeply with an airtight mask seal, providing immediate positive reinforcement for correct technique.

What were the main quantitative findings in Chaney et al. (2004)?

Parent-reported adherence increased from 59% with standard spacers to 81% with the Funhaler, and successful delivery of 4+ breath cycles rose from 50% to 80% (\(p < 0.05\)).

How does Chaney et al. extend the findings of Bandura et al. regarding external influences on behaviour?

While Bandura showed how external models lead to negative, maladaptive behaviours (aggression) in a lab, Chaney demonstrated how external rewards shape positive, health-promoting behaviours in real-world home settings.

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