Xerxes I and the Greeks 486–465 BC

Xerxes I and the Greeks (486–465 BC)

Welcome to our study on the Persian Empire under Xerxes I! So far, we’ve seen the empire grow under Cyrus and Darius. Now, we meet Xerxes. This chapter features massive invasions, incredible engineering, key Persian royal inscriptions, and some of the most famous battles in history. We will look at how Xerxes took power, how he attempted to conquer Greece, and what he left behind.

1. A New King and Early Trouble (486 BC)

When Darius I died in 486 BC, his son Xerxes became the "Great King." Immediately, two major parts of the empire decided to rebel: Egypt and Babylonia.

Suppression of Revolts:
Xerxes had to secure his empire before launching any foreign campaigns:
• Egypt: Xerxes led an army and crushed the revolt by 484 BC. He appointed his brother, Achaemenes, as the new satrap.
• Babylonia: Xerxes suppressed rebellions harshly. Ancient traditions record that he removed the golden statue of the god Bel-Marduk to demonstrate royal control.

Key Takeaway: Xerxes proved himself a firm military leader early in his reign by securing the empire's borders before turning towards Greece.

2. The Mega-Invasion: Preparing for Greece

Xerxes spent four years preparing an overwhelming force to invade the Greek mainland, continuing the campaign his father Darius had begun.

Engineering Marvels:
To transport his vast army into Greece, Xerxes ordered two major engineering projects:
1. The Hellespont Bridge: He constructed a bridge of boats across the Hellespont between Asia and Europe. When a storm destroyed the first bridge, Xerxes ordered the sea to be ritually punished with 300 lashes.
2. The Athos Canal: To protect his fleet from dangerous storms around the Athos peninsula, he had a canal excavated across the isthmus.

Persian Military Organisation:
The Persian army drew contingents from across the vast empire:
• The Immortals: An elite core of 10,000 soldiers. Whenever one soldier fell or fell ill, another immediately took his place, keeping the unit permanently at full strength.
• Equipment: Persian infantry relied heavily on bows and arrows, wearing patterned tunics and carrying light wicker shields (gerra), which favoured long-range missile warfare over heavy close combat.

Did you know? Ancient Greek historians such as Herodotus claimed Xerxes' force numbered in the millions, though modern historians estimate the combat force was around 100,000 to 250,000 soldiers.

3. The Great Battles (480–479 BC)

In 480 BC, Xerxes launched his invasion of Greece. The campaign featured several decisive engagements on land and sea:

The Battle of Thermopylae (480 BC):
A Greek coalition force, famously led by 300 Spartans under King Leonidas, held the narrow pass of Thermopylae for three days. Xerxes eventually learned of a mountain path to outflank the Greek defenders and secure the pass, though at a heavy cost in time and troops.

The Sack of Athens:
Advancing south into Attica, Xerxes captured the evacuated city of Athens and burned the temples on the Acropolis in retaliation for earlier Greek actions.

The Battle of Salamis (480 BC):
The Athenian leader Themistocles lured the Persian navy into the narrow straits of Salamis. The larger Persian fleet became crowded and vulnerable, allowing the agile Greek triremes to inflict a catastrophic defeat—an event vividly depicted in Greek sources including Herodotus and the playwright Aeschylus in The Persians. Xerxes, observing from a throne on a hillside, withdrew back to Asia with part of the army, leaving his general Mardonius in command of the remaining forces in Greece.

The Battles of Plataea and Mycale (479 BC):
The final stage of the invasion took place the following year:
• Plataea: A combined Greek land army defeated the Persian land force, and Mardonius was killed in battle.
• Mycale: Fought around the same time off the coast of Ionia, the Greek fleet destroyed the remaining Persian naval forces, ending Xerxes' offensive invasion of mainland Greece.

4. Persian Fighting Techniques: Strengths and Challenges

Understanding the contrasting styles of warfare explains why the Persians encountered difficulties in Greece:
• Shields and Armour: Light Persian wicker shields and linen cuirasses were ideal for mobile warfare in open plains, but vulnerable against the heavy bronze armour and long thrusting spears of Greek hoplites.
• Terrain: In narrow passes like Thermopylae and restricted straits like Salamis, Persian superiority in numbers and missile archery could not be used effectively against tightly packed Greek formations.

5. Building Projects, Inscriptions, and Later Reign

Despite the setback in Greece, Xerxes remained a powerful monarch across his vast empire and invested extensively in monumental architecture and imperial propaganda.

Imperial Building and Inscriptions:
• Xerxes completed major architectural works begun by Darius at Persepolis and Susa, including the famous Gate of All Nations (celebrated in the XPa inscription) and the grand Apadana (audience hall).
• The Daiva Inscription (XPh): In this important royal inscription, Xerxes records that he suppressed rebellion and banned the worship of false gods (daivas), emphasising his devotion to the supreme god Ahuramazda and the maintenance of cosmic truth and order (Arta).

The End of the Reign (465 BC):
• Battle of Eurymedon (c. 466 BC): Persian forces suffered a further defeat against the Greeks in Asia Minor.
• The Peace of Callias: Later ancient authors like Plutarch refer to a contested peace treaty restricting Persian naval forces from entering the Aegean Sea.
• Assassination: Xerxes' reign ended when he was assassinated at court in 465 BC.

Key Takeaway: Although Xerxes' European campaign was halted, he consolidated the Persian heartland, completed magnificent architectural monuments at Persepolis, and maintained royal authority over an empire spanning three continents.