Introduction: Get Your "Passport" to the World of Classical Japanese!
Do you ever feel that "Classical Japanese (Kobun) is so hard to read and understand because it's ancient language..."? It might feel challenging at first, but don't worry! To read classical texts smoothly, there are basically two key tricks you need to know.
First, learn the rules to convert "historical kana orthography" (rekishiteki kanazukai)—the ancient way of writing kana—into modern pronunciations.
Second, make good use of the "glossary notes" (gochū) and "modern Japanese translations" (gendaigoyaku) provided in your textbooks and exams.
Once you master these two skills, classical literature will become much easier to read and far more relatable. Let’s tackle them step by step together!
*Note: Classical grammar, rhythm, and how to read Kanbun (Classical Chinese) will be covered in detail in their respective units.
1. What Is Historical Kana Orthography?
While the way we write kana today is called "modern kana orthography" (gendai kanazukai), the writing system used in ancient classical texts is called "historical kana orthography" (rekishiteki kanazukai).
Over time, the way ancient people actually spoke began to drift apart from how words were written. As a result, texts from the Heian and Kamakura periods preserve kana spellings that look quite different from how we write today.
When reading classical literature, the basic rule of thumb is to mentally convert this historical kana spelling into modern pronunciation (modern kana orthography) as you read aloud.
[Key Point]
A classic exam question often asks: "Convert the historical kana orthography into modern kana orthography and write your answer entirely in hiragana (or the specified format)." Make sure to organize and remember these basic rules thoroughly!
2. Basic Rules for Converting to Modern Kana Orthography
Converting historical kana into modern kana follows a set of clear patterns. Let’s look at the major ones one by one!
Rule 1: Convert non-initial "ha, hi, fu, he, ho" (は・ひ・ふ・へ・ほ) to "wa, i, u, e, o" (わ・い・う・え・お)
When "は・ひ・ふ・へ・ほ" appear anywhere other than the very beginning (word-initial position) of a word, they are pronounced and written in modern kana as "わ・い・う・え・お", respectively.
・かは (river / kawa) → かわ (Non-initial "は" becomes "わ")
・ありひと (name, etc. / Arihito) → ありいと (Non-initial "ひ" becomes "い", making it ありいと)
・いふ (to say / ifu) → いう ("ふ" becomes "う")
・まへ (front, before / mahe) → まえ ("へ" becomes "え")
・おほきに (greatly / ohokini) → おおきに ("ほ" becomes "お")
[Common Mistake]
Do NOT change "は・ひ・ふ・へ・ほ" if they appear as the very first syllable (word-initial) of a word! Keep them as they are.
× はな (flower / hana) → わな
○ はな (flower / hana) → はな (Word-initial, so keep it as is!)
Also, keep in mind that the grammatical particles "は" (topic marker) and "へ" (direction marker) are still written as "は" (pronounced wa) and "へ" (pronounced e) in modern orthography, so their spelling remains unchanged.
Rule 2: Convert "ゐ, ゑ, を" to "い, え, お"
Archaic kana characters that are no longer used today, as well as non-particle "を", are written as "い・え・お" to match their pronunciation.
・ゐる (to sit / to be) → いる
・こゑ (voice) → こえ
・をのこ (man) → おのこ
*However, the direct object particle "〜を" is still written as "を" in modern Japanese.
Rule 3: Convert "ぢ, づ" to "じ, ず"
As a general rule, voiced syllables "ぢ" and "づ" are converted to modern "じ" and "ず".
・ふぢ (wisteria) → ふじ
・いづれ (which) → いずれ
・ちかづく (to approach) → ちかづく (*Note: In modern kana orthography, exceptions like "つづく" [to continue] or compound words like "ちかづく" keep "づ" due to sound repetition or word roots, but classical words like "いづこ" and "いづれ" are converted to "ず".)
Rule 4: Convert "くゎ, ぐゎ" to "か, が"
In older texts, you may see a small "ゎ" combined with "く" or "ぐ", but these simply become "か" and "が" in modern kana.
・くゎし (sweets, confectionery) → かし
・ぐゎんじつ (New Year's Day) → がんじつ
Rule 5: Write geminate consonants (っ) and contracted sounds (ゃ, ゅ, ょ) as small kana
In historical kana orthography, the small "っ" (sokuon) and contracted sounds "ゃ・ゅ・ょ" (yōon) were written as regular, full-sized characters. When converting to modern kana, rewrite them as small characters.
・きつさてん (coffee shop) → きっさてん
・をとこをとこしく (manly) → おとこおとこしく (*Historical kana did not use small script here)
・きやう (today, etc.) → きょう (Make the contracted sound small, then apply the long vowel rule below)
Rule 6: Vowel combinations that turn into long vowels (chōon)
This is where students stumble most often, but once you memorize the patterns, it’s a breeze!
When the vowel of the preceding syllable (a, i, or e) merges with a following "う" or "ふ", it turns into a sustained long vowel sound.
1. a-column sound ＋ う (or ふ) → "ō" (おー) sound
・やうす (appearance) → ようす ("や [ya]" + "う [u]" → "よー [yo:]")
・まうづ (to visit a shrine) → もうず ("ま [ma]" + "う [u]" → "もー [mo:]")
2. i-column sound ＋ う (or ふ) → "yū" (ゆー) sound
・きう (urgent / steep) → きゅう ("き [ki]" + "う [u]" → "きゅー [kyu:]")
・いう (to say / ifu) → ゆう ("い [i]" + "ふ [fu]" → "い + う" → "ゆー [yu:]")
3. e-column sound ＋ う (or ふ) → "yō" (よー) sound
・けふ (today) → きょう ("け [ke]" + "ふ [fu]" → "け + う" → "きょー [kyo:]")
・てふてふ (butterfly) → ちょうちょう ("て [te]" + "ふ [fu]" → "ちょー [chyo:]")
[Trivia Bite!]
Doesn't it seem bizarre that "tefutefu" turns into "chōchō" (ちょうちょう)?
It actually transforms in two steps: first, Rule 1 turns "ふ" into "う" (teutewu / てうてう), and then Rule 6 merges the e-column vowel with "う" into "yō" (ちょうちょう)! It feels just like solving a word puzzle, doesn't it?
3. How to Use Modern Translations and Glossaries
When reading classical texts, you don't need to translate every single word entirely on your own from scratch.
In Junior High School classical Japanese, your primary goal is to use the glossary notes and modern Japanese translations as clues to grasp the general plot and understand how the people of that time thought and viewed the world.
What are Glossary Notes (Gochū)?
These are explanatory notes placed beside or at the bottom of the textbook text, explaining difficult vocabulary, cultural contexts, or historical backgrounds.
In classical Japanese, many words look identical to modern words but have completely different meanings! For example, in classical Japanese, "odoroku" does not mean "to be surprised"; it means "to wake up" or "to realize / notice".
To avoid falling into these traps, get into the habit of checking the glossary immediately whenever you see a footnote number or symbol in the text!
What is a Modern Japanese Translation (Gendaigoyaku)?
This is a translation of the original classical passage into modern everyday Japanese.
The standard way to study classical texts is to read the original text alongside its modern translation.
[4 Steps to Master Reading with Translations and Notes]
Step 1: Read aloud first
Read the passage out loud while paying attention to historical kana pronunciation. Reading aloud helps you pick up on the unique rhythm and flow of classical Japanese.
Step 2: Check the glossary notes
Look up unfamiliar words or key vocabulary whose meanings have shifted over time.
Step 3: Compare the original text and modern translation line by line
Trace along with your finger to see which part of the original corresponds to which part of the modern translation. By confirming, "Ah, this ancient phrase translates into this modern expression!", the story will click into place effortlessly.
Step 4: Reflect on the scene and imagine how ancient people felt
Once you understand the plot, reflect on what the characters were feeling and how ancient people observed nature, society, and daily life.
Summary: Key Takeaways
[Rules for Historical Kana Conversion]
・Non-initial "は・ひ・ふ・へ・ほ" → わ・い・う・え・お
・"ゐ・ゑ・を" → い・え・お
・"ぢ・づ" → じ・ず
・"くゎ・ぐゎ" → か・が
・Write geminate/contracted sounds (っ, ゃ, ゅ, ょ) using small kana
・Long vowel combinations: "a + u = ō", "i + u = yū", "e + u = yō"
[Tips for Reading Classical Japanese]
・Use glossary notes as guideposts and watch out for false friends (words with changed meanings)
・Read while cross-referencing the modern translation with the original, appreciating the content, perspectives, and emotions of the literature
Now that you know the rules, try reading classical texts from your textbook out loud! Once you get used to the rhythm, you'll be reading smoothly in no time—and the classical world will become vastly more enjoyable!