Introduction: Welcome to the Hundred Years War!
Have you ever wondered how England and France became two distinct, powerful nations? Or why kings who used to speak French in London suddenly started speaking English? The answers lie in one of the most famous conflicts in medieval history: the Hundred Years War.
Don't worry if medieval history feels a bit complicated with all its kings, battles, and treaties! We are going to break it down step by step using simple explanations, clear timelines, and helpful memory tricks.
1. The Big Picture: What Was the Hundred Years War?
Despite its name, the Hundred Years War was not a single, continuous war that lasted exactly a century. Instead, it was an intermittent series of campaigns, raids, and truces fought between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France from 1337 to 1453.
• Exact Duration: It actually lasted 116 years!
• The Belligerents: The English Royal House (the Plantagenets and later the Lancastrians) versus the French Royal House (the House of Valois).
• Nature of the War: It was punctuated by long truces and major disruptions, including outbreaks of the Black Death.
Key Takeaway: The Hundred Years War was not 100 unbroken years of fighting; it was a 116-year clash of kings, treaties, and battles from 1337 to 1453.
2. Why Did the War Start? (The Three Main Causes)
To understand why two neighbouring kingdoms went to war, think of it like a dispute over an inheritance mixed with an argument over land ownership.
Cause 1: The Claim to the French Throne (Dynastic Dispute)
In 1328, the King of France, Charles IV, died without leaving a direct son to inherit the crown. This brought an end to the direct Capetian line of kings.
• Edward III of England believed he was the rightful King of France because his mother, Isabella of France, was Charles IV's sister.
• The French nobles did not want an English king ruling them. They used an ancient rule known as Salic Law, which stated that the royal crown could not be inherited through the female line.
• The French crowned Philip VI of Valois instead.
Cause 2: Feudal Land and Gascony (Territorial Dispute)
English kings had owned land in southwest France (the duchy of Aquitaine, also known as Gascony) since the 12th century under King Henry II.
• The Problem: Even though Edward III was an independent king in England, he held Gascony as a vassal (a feudal tenant) to the King of France. This meant he technically had to pay homage to the French king.
• In 1337, King Philip VI declared that he was confiscating Gascony from Edward III.
• Edward III retaliated in 1340 by officially declaring himself the rightful King of France and going to war.
Cause 3: The "Auld Alliance" and Wool Trade (Allies and Money)
• The Auld Alliance: France had a close alliance with Scotland. When French kings supported King David II of Scotland against England, it threatened the security of northern England.
• Wool Trade: English merchants made great wealth exporting wool to Flanders (modern-day Belgium). French interference in this Flemish trade threatened England's economy.
Key Takeaway: The war started because of a mix of royal family inheritance claims (Edward III vs Philip VI), disputes over French land (Gascony), and economic/political alliances (the Flemish wool trade and the Scottish Auld Alliance).
3. Phase One: English Triumphs & The Power of the Longbow
In the early stages of the war, English armies won stunning victories against larger French forces. How did they manage this? Through tactical organisation and a game-changing weapon: the English longbow.
Key Battles of the First Phase
• Battle of Sluys (1340): A major naval battle fought off the coast of Flanders. The English fleet won a decisive victory, securing English control of the English Channel and making it safe to transport troops to France.
• Battle of Crécy (1346): King Edward III and his sixteen-year-old son, Edward the Black Prince, faced a much larger French army. The French relied heavily on mounted armoured knights and mercenary crossbowmen. The English longbowmen fired arrows with incredible speed and range, completely shattering the French charges.
• Capture of Calais (1347): Following a gruelling year-long siege, Edward III captured the northern French port of Calais. It became a crucial military base and trading post for England.
• Battle of Poitiers (1356): Led by the Black Prince, English forces defeated another French army and achieved something extraordinary: they captured the French King, John II (Jean II), and held him for ransom!
The Treaty of Brétigny (1360)
With their king in English hands, France was forced to negotiate. Under the Treaty of Brétigny (1360):
• Edward III gave up his claim to the French crown.
• In return, Edward III received full sovereign ownership of Aquitaine and other lands, meaning he no longer had to act as a feudal servant to the French king.
Key Takeaway: Thanks to military discipline and the deadly English longbow, England dominated early battles like Crécy and Poitiers, leading to favourable land concessions in the Treaty of Brétigny.
4. Phase Two: Henry V, Agincourt, and the Rise of Joan of Arc
After a period of relative peace, the war erupted again under one of England's most famous warrior kings: Henry V.
The Battle of Agincourt (25 October 1415)
Henry V invaded northern France in 1415 to reclaim English fortunes. On St Crispin's Day (25 October), his tired, hungry, and heavily outnumbered army was trapped near the village of Agincourt.
• The Battlefield: Heavy rain turned the narrow, ploughed field into deep, sticky mud.
• The Tactics: The French knights charged in heavy armour, but got bogged down in the mud. English longbow archers poured thousands of arrows into the crowded French ranks, and dismounted English men-at-arms counter-attacked.
• The Result: A stunning, unexpected English victory that wiped out a large portion of the French nobility.
The Treaty of Troyes (1420)
Following his triumph at Agincourt, Henry V forced the French to sign the Treaty of Troyes:
• Henry V was declared heir and regent to the French throne under the aging French King Charles VI.
• The French crown prince, the Dauphin (later Charles VII), was officially disinherited.
• Henry V married Catherine of Valois (the French king's daughter).
• The Twist: In 1422, Henry V died suddenly from illness before Charles VI died, meaning he never actually sat on the French throne!
Joan of Arc & The French Resurgence (1429)
Just when France seemed completely beaten, a teenage peasant girl named Joan of Arc stepped onto the stage of history.
• Joan claimed she heard divine voices instructing her to save France and help the Dauphin, Charles VII, claim his crown.
• Rather than being a battlefield general wielding a sword, Joan acted as a spiritual figurehead who gave the demoralised French troops immense hope and courage.
• In 1429, she inspired French forces to break the Siege of Orléans and escorted Charles VII deep into enemy-held territory to be officially crowned King of France at Reims.
• Her Fate: Joan was captured in 1430, handed over to an English-backed church court, and burned at the stake for heresy in Rouen in 1431. However, the patriotic spirit she inspired did not die.
The Final Chapter: The Battle of Castillon (1453)
Re-energised French armies pushed the English back across France. At the Battle of Castillon (1453), the French made decisive use of field artillery and gunpowder cannons to destroy the English army. This marked the definitive end of the Hundred Years War.
Key Takeaway: Henry V's brilliant triumph at Agincourt brought England close to ruling France, but the inspirational leadership of Joan of Arc turned the tide, leading to France's final victory at Castillon in 1453.
5. Outcomes and Consequences: How Did the War Change History?
The Hundred Years War transformed both Britain and France in four major ways:
1. Territorial Results (Who Won?)
France won the war. England was completely driven out of continental Europe, losing all its territories except for one small enclave: the Pale of Calais (which England managed to hold onto until 1558).
2. Changes in Warfare
• The age of the armoured, noble feudal knight riding into battle on horseback came to an end.
• Armies shifted towards professional, paid infantry, massed longbow archers, and early gunpowder and cannon artillery.
3. A New English Identity and Language
• Before the war, the English royal court and upper nobility spoke French (a legacy of the Norman Conquest of 1066).
• As France became England's arch-enemy, speaking French became unpatriotic. The English language (Middle English) replaced French in government, the royal court, and daily literature, forging a distinct sense of English national identity.
4. Trouble at Home: The Wars of the Roses
• The war drained England's treasury and caused financial ruin.
• English nobles returned home angry, penniless, and blaming the government for losing their French estates.
• This deep instability directly triggered a bitter English civil war known as the Wars of the Roses (1455–1487).
Key Takeaway: France won the war and took back its land. England lost everything except Calais, but developed a strong English language identity and faced domestic turmoil that sparked the Wars of the Roses.
6. Pitfalls & Common Mistakes to Avoid in History
Make sure you do not fall into these common traps in your tests and essays:
• Mistake 1: Thinking the war lasted exactly 100 years.
Correction: It lasted 116 years (1337–1453) and was not continuous; there were long pauses and treaties in between.
• Mistake 2: Thinking England won because of famous victories.
Correction: While England won famous battles like Crécy, Poitiers, and Agincourt, France won the overall war and expelled the English from their lands.
• Mistake 3: Thinking the war ended at Agincourt.
Correction: Henry V's victory at Agincourt happened in 1415. The war continued for another 38 years until the Battle of Castillon in 1453.
• Mistake 4: Describing Joan of Arc as an armed general.
Correction: Joan was an inspirational and spiritual figurehead whose faith and presence raised French morale, not a sword-fighting military commander.
7. Quick Review Checklist
Test yourself on the essentials! Can you answer these key questions?
• Dates: 1337 to 1453 (\(1453 - 1337 = 116\text{ years}\)).
• Dynastic Cause: Edward III claimed the French throne via his mother Isabella, but the French used Salic Law to crown Philip VI.
• Territorial Cause: Conflict over Gascony (Aquitaine).
• Key Weapons: The English longbow (early phase) and French field artillery/gunpowder (final phase).
• Famous English Victories: Sluys (1340), Crécy (1346), Poitiers (1356), Agincourt (1415).
• French Turning Points: Joan of Arc lifts the Siege of Orléans (1429); Charles VII crowned at Reims; Battle of Castillon (1453).
• Final Land Holding: England lost everything except the Pale of Calais.
• English Consequence: English replaced French as the main court language; defeat led into the Wars of the Roses (1455–1487).
The Wars of the Roses and Henry VII: Restoring Stability in England
Welcome to your study guide on one of the most dramatic periods in British history! Between 1455 and 1509, England went through bitter civil wars, saw kings lose and regain their crowns, and witnessed the birth of the famous Tudor Dynasty.
Don't worry if this seems complicated at first with all the different kings and battles. We will break everything down step-by-step so you can easily understand what happened, why it happened, and how King Henry VII finally restored peace and stability.
Part 1: What Were the Wars of the Roses?
The Wars of the Roses (1455–1487) were a series of civil wars fought between two rival branches of the same royal family, the House of Plantagenet. Both sides were descended from King Edward III and believed they had the rightful claim to the English throne:
• The House of Lancaster: Represented later by the symbol of the red rose.
• The House of York: Represented by the symbol of the white rose.
Did You Know? People living at the time did not actually call this conflict "The Wars of the Roses." That famous name was popularised hundreds of years later by writers such as Sir Walter Scott, even though both houses did use red and white rose badges during their reigns!
Key Takeaway: The Wars of the Roses was not one continuous, non-stop war. Instead, it consisted of quick campaigns and sudden battles separated by years of relative peace and ordinary daily life.
Part 2: Why Did the Wars Break Out?
Why did these two royal families turn against each other? Historians point to four main causes:
1. A Weak and Incapable King (Henry VI)
King Henry VI (a Lancastrian) was a gentle and deeply religious man, but he was a very weak ruler. He suffered from severe bouts of mental illness, during which he could not speak or make decisions. He was easily controlled by favourites at court and lacked military leadership.
2. The Loss of Lands in France
For over a century, England had been fighting in France. In 1453, the Hundred Years' War ended with England losing almost all of its French territories. English nobles returned home angry, humiliated, and financially drained, blaming Henry VI's government for the disaster.
3. "Over-Mighty Nobles" (Magnates)
Certain rich aristocrats, such as Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick (known as "The Kingmaker"), grew wealthier and more powerful than the King himself. These nobles kept private, armed retinues (armies of loyal men). When disputes arose, they used their private armies to fight rival lords instead of obeying the law.
4. Rival Claims to the Throne
Because Henry VI was so weak, Richard, Duke of York, challenged his right to govern. Both families had valid royal bloodlines going back to Edward III, which led to a bitter power struggle over who should sit on the throne.
Easy Memory Aid to Remember the Causes: Think of W-A-R-S:
• Weak King (Henry VI)
• Armed private retinues (Over-mighty nobles like Warwick)
• Rival lineages (Lancaster vs York)
• Surrender in France (Loss of lands in 1453)
Part 3: Key Timeline and Turning Points (1455–1485)
Here is how the crown changed hands during the conflict:
• 1455 (First Battle of St Albans): Active fighting breaks out between the forces of Lancaster and York.
• 1461–1483 (Reign of Edward IV): The Yorkist leader becomes King Edward IV. His reign is briefly interrupted in 1470–1471 when the Earl of Warwick switches sides and temporarily restores Henry VI to the throne, before Edward IV wins it back.
• 1483 (The Princes in the Tower & Richard III): Edward IV dies suddenly. His 12-year-old son becomes King Edward V. However, Edward V and his younger brother disappear inside the Tower of London. Their uncle takes the crown as King Richard III (reigned 1483–1485).
• 22 August 1485 (The Battle of Bosworth Field): Henry Tudor, a Lancastrian claimant living in exile in France and Brittany, returns to England with an army. He defeats and kills Richard III on the battlefield. Henry is crowned King Henry VII, ending the Plantagenet dynasty and founding the House of Tudor.
Key Takeaway: The Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 brought a new royal dynasty to power, but Henry VII still had to work hard to secure his new crown.
Part 4: How Henry VII Restored Stability (1485–1509)
A common mistake is thinking that all fighting stopped instantly at Bosworth Field. Henry VII had to overcome plots, rival claimants, and lawless nobles to secure England. Here are the five key methods he used to bring stability:
1. Uniting the Rival Houses (Dynastic Marriage)
In January 1486, Henry VII married Elizabeth of York (the eldest daughter of Edward IV). This brilliant political move united the Houses of Lancaster and York. To celebrate this peace, Henry created the famous Tudor Rose, combining the Lancaster red rose with the York white rose.
2. Crushing Pretenders and Rebellions
Yorkist supporters tried to replace Henry with "pretenders" (impostors pretending to be royal princes):
• Lambert Simnel: Pretended to be the Earl of Warwick. Henry defeated his rebel army at the Battle of Stoke Field (1487).
• Perkin Warbeck: Claimed to be Richard, Duke of York (one of the Princes in the Tower) and gathered support abroad for eight years before being captured and executed.
3. Taming the "Over-Mighty" Nobles
Henry VII knew that wealthy nobles with private armies were a threat to the throne. He used three main methods to bring them to heel:
• Banning Retaining: He passed strict laws against retaining (keeping private, liveried armies). Nobles who broke these laws were hit with massive fines.
• Bonds and Recognisances: Henry forced nobles to sign legal agreements promising good behaviour. If a noble stepped out of line, they had to pay a huge sum of money. (Think of this like a massive financial deposit that you lose if you break the rules.)
• The Court of Star Chamber: Henry strengthened this special royal court to try powerful nobles who were rich enough to intimidate or bribe local juries.
4. Managing Money and Royal Finances
Henry believed that a poor king was a weak king. He avoided costly foreign wars, strictly collected customs duties on trade, and managed crown lands efficiently. By the end of his reign, the Crown was solvent (out of debt) and wealthy, meaning Henry did not have to constantly ask Parliament for unpopular taxes.
5. Securing Alliances through Foreign Diplomacy
Henry used clever treaties and marriages to gain international recognition and prevent foreign leaders from supporting Yorkist rebellions:
• Treaty of Medina del Campo (with Spain): Arranged the marriage of his eldest son, Prince Arthur, to the Spanish princess Catherine of Aragon.
• Treaty of Ayton (with Scotland): Arranged the marriage of his daughter, Margaret Tudor, to King James IV of Scotland.
Key Takeaway: Henry VII restored stability not by winning glorious foreign wars, but through careful financial management, controlling the nobility, and securing clever marriages.
Part 5: Common Misconceptions to Avoid in Exams
• Myth 1: "The Wars of the Roses was 30 years of constant, daily bloodshed."
Reality: The actual fighting was intermittent. There were long stretches of peace, and most ordinary English people carried on with their daily lives.
• Myth 2: "England became instantly peaceful the moment Henry VII won at Bosworth."
Reality: Henry faced a decade of serious plots, impostors (like Lambert Simnel and Perkin Warbeck), and battles (such as the Battle of Stoke Field in 1487) before his throne was truly secure.
• Myth 3: "The wars started purely because of a personal family argument."
Reality: While family rivalry existed, the wars were triggered by deeper structural problems: the loss of French lands, Henry VI's mental illness, and the dangerous power of nobles with private armies.
Part 6: Chapter Summary Checklist
Can you explain these key points in your own words?
• Who fought? House of Lancaster (Red Rose) vs. House of York (White Rose).
• Why did it start? Weak rule of Henry VI, loss of French lands (1453), and over-mighty nobles like Warwick.
• What happened in 1485? Henry Tudor defeated Richard III at Bosworth Field to become King Henry VII.
• How did Henry VII bring peace? Married Elizabeth of York (Tudor Rose), outlawed private retaining, used bonds and recognisances, controlled spending, and signed diplomatic treaties with Spain and Scotland.