Welcome to the Skeleton of Language: Grammar

When we study grammar at A-level, we aren't just looking at "correct" or "incorrect" English. Instead, we are looking at the structural patterns and "shapes" of the language. Think of grammar as the skeleton that holds up the body of a text. Without it, the words (lexis) would just be a pile of bricks without any mortar to hold them together.

In the OxfordAQA specification, grammar is one of your six language levels. You will use it as a tool to analyse how writers and speakers express identity, claim power, or persuade their audience. We look at grammar on a scale, moving from the smallest building blocks to the largest: words → phrases → clauses → sentences.

1. The Word Level (Word Classes)

Words are the smallest independent units of grammar. To analyse them, we group them into word classes (sometimes called "parts of speech").

Open Classes (Lexical Words)

These are "content" words. New words are added to these groups all the time (like to ghost or unfriend).

Nouns: Naming words. These can be concrete (table), abstract (love), proper (London), or collective (herd).
Verbs: Action or state words. Dynamic verbs describe physical actions (run), while stative verbs describe states of being or thoughts (believe, seem).
Adjectives: Describing words that modify nouns (the blue sky).
Adverbs: Words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs (he ran quickly).

Closed Classes (Grammatical Words)

These act like the glue. We rarely create new ones.

Pronouns: Replace nouns (I, you, she, it). Useful for looking at how people position themselves in social groups (Unit 2).
Determiners: Positioned before a noun to clarify which one (the dog, that apple, some people).
Prepositions: Show relationships in time or space (in the box, after the party).
Conjunctions: Joining words (and, but, because).

Quick Takeaway: When analysing a text, ask yourself: Why has the writer used so many abstract nouns? (Perhaps to seem academic). Why use imperative verbs? (To show power or give instructions).

2. The Phrase Level

A phrase is a group of words that functions as a single unit, but it does not contain a Subject-Verb pairing that makes a complete thought. Phrases are named after the most important word in them—the head word.

Noun Phrase: The very large, hungry caterpillar. (The head word is "caterpillar").
Verb Phrase: ...has been running. (The head word is "running").

Did you know? In advertising (Unit 1), writers often use very long noun phrases to pack in lots of persuasive detail about a product, like "A refreshing, zesty, ice-cold lemon drink."

3. The Clause Level

A clause is a larger building block that usually contains a subject and a verb. Standard modern linguistics uses the SVOCA model to describe the elements inside a clause:

1. Subject (S): The person or thing doing the action (The cat sat...).
2. Verb (V): The action or state (The cat sat...).
3. Object (O): The thing affected by the action (The cat sat on the mat).
4. Complement (C): Provides more information about the subject (The cat is black).
5. Adverbial (A): Tells us when, where, or how (The cat sat yesterday).

Main vs. Subordinate Clauses

Main Clause: Can stand alone as a sentence. I went to the shop.
Subordinate (Dependent) Clause: Cannot stand alone; it needs a main clause to make sense. ...because I was hungry.

Key Takeaway: If a speaker uses many subordinate clauses, their language might feel more formal, complex, or carefully planned (Unit 1: Mode).

4. The Sentence Level

A sentence is the largest unit of grammar. We look at sentences in two ways: their structure (how they are built) and their function (what they do).

Sentence Structures

Simple Sentence: Contains only one main clause. (The sun is shining.)
Compound Sentence: Two or more main clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction like 'and', 'but', or 'or'. (The sun is shining and the birds are singing.)
Complex Sentence: A main clause joined with one or more subordinate clauses. (I stayed inside because the sun was too hot.)
Compound-Complex Sentence: Contains at least two main clauses and at least one subordinate clause.

Sentence Functions

Declarative: Makes a statement (It is raining.). Most common in informative texts.
Imperative: Gives a command or instruction (Sit down. Buy now!). Shows power or status (Unit 2).
Interrogative: Asks a question (Are you coming?). Helps build relationships or rapport.
Exclamatory: Expresses strong emotion (That is amazing!).

Summary Table for Quick Review

Word: The basic unit (Nouns, Verbs, etc.).
Phrase: A group of words without a full SV structure (The big dog).
Clause: A group of words with a Subject and Verb (The dog barked).
Sentence: One or more clauses starting with a capital and ending with a full stop.

Common Mistakes to Avoid

1. Confusing Phrases and Clauses: Remember, a clause usually has a verb and a subject performing that verb. A phrase is just a cluster of words. "In the morning" is a phrase; "I woke up" is a clause.
2. Identifying 'and' as a Subordinating Conjunction: 'And', 'but', and 'or' are coordinating conjunctions. They create compound sentences, not complex ones.
3. Forgetting the Context: Don't just label a sentence as "complex." Ask yourself: Why did the author use a complex sentence here? Is it to show a complicated relationship between ideas? Or to sound more authoritative?

Note: For more on how words create meaning, see the "Lexis and semantics" chapter. For how sentences flow together in a whole text, see "Discourse".