Introduction to Prescribed Studies
Welcome to one of the most fascinating parts of your Psychology course! While theories like Classical Conditioning and Social Learning Theory explain how we might learn, we need evidence to prove they actually happen in real life. In this chapter, we explore the "famous names" and "modern research" that shaped our understanding of human behavior. Don't worry if the names and dates seem like a lot at first—we will break them down into simple, easy-to-remember stories!
Note: For the theories behind these studies, please refer to the "Classical and operant conditioning" and "Social learning theory" chapters.
The Classic Study: Watson and Rayner (1920)
"Little Albert: Conditioned Emotional Reactions"
The Goal: Watson and Rayner wanted to see if they could use Classical Conditioning to "teach" a baby to be afraid of something he wasn't afraid of before. They also wanted to see if that fear would spread to other similar objects.
The Participant: A healthy, emotionally stable 9-month-old baby boy known as "Little Albert."
The Procedure:
1. Baseline Test: They showed Albert a white rat, a rabbit, a dog, and some cotton wool. He showed no fear—he was actually quite curious! (The rat was a Neutral Stimulus).
2. The Conditioning: When Albert reached out to touch the white rat, the researchers struck a hammer against a steel bar behind his head. This made a terrifyingly loud noise (The Unconditioned Stimulus).
3. The Result: The loud noise made Albert cry (The Unconditioned Response). They repeated this pairing several times over several weeks.
The Findings:
Eventually, Albert only had to see the white rat to start crying and crawling away. The rat had become a Conditioned Stimulus.
Generalisation: This was the most famous part! Albert also became afraid of other white, furry things, such as a white rabbit, a fur coat, and even a Santa Claus mask with a white beard.
Evaluation (The "GRAVE" approach):
Generalisability: Low. This was a case study on only one child. We don't know if every baby would react the same way.
Reliability: High. The procedure was very controlled and filmed, so it could be repeated.
Application: Useful. It explains how humans might develop phobias in the real world.
Validity: High internal validity. They made sure he wasn't afraid of the rat beforehand.
Ethics: Very Poor. They caused a child "distress" and didn't "de-condition" him (remove the fear) before he left.
Quick Review: Watson and Rayner proved that phobias are learned, not something we are necessarily born with.
Contemporary Study Option 1: Becker et al. (2002)
"TV and Eating Behaviour in Fiji"
The Context: In Fiji, the traditional "ideal" body type was actually quite large and robust. Slimness was not traditionally seen as beautiful there. However, television was introduced to the island for the first time in the 1990s.
The Aim: To see if exposure to Western TV shows (where the actors are usually very thin) would influence the eating habits and body image of Fijian teenage girls.
The Procedure:
This was a natural experiment. They compared two groups of girls:
1. A group in 1995 (just as TV was being introduced).
2. A group in 1998 (after TV had been there for three years).
They used a questionnaire called the EAT-26 to measure eating attitudes and conducted interviews.
The Findings:
By 1998, the girls' attitudes had changed significantly. The percentage of girls who reported self-induced vomiting (purging) to control weight rose from \(0\%\) to \(11.3\%\). Many girls said they wanted to look like the characters they saw on shows like Friends or Beverly Hills 90210.
Conclusion: This supports Social Learning Theory. The girls observed "role models" on TV, saw them being rewarded with status/beauty, and tried to imitate their look.
Contemporary Study Option 2: Bastian et al. (2011)
"Cyber-dehumanization and Video Games"
The Aim: To see if playing violent video games makes people feel "less human" (dehumanization).
The Procedure:
In one study, participants played either a violent game (like Mortal Kombat) or a non-violent game (like Top Spin Tennis) for 15 minutes. They then had to rate themselves and their opponents on "human" qualities, like having a "heart" or being "refined."
The Findings:
Those who played the violent game rated themselves and their opponents as significantly less human. They felt more "robotic" and less empathetic. This suggests that the repetitive "learned" violence in games can temporarily change how we view human nature.
Key Takeaway: This links to Social Learning Theory by showing how media models (the characters in games) can affect our internal thoughts and perceptions of others.
Contemporary Study Option 3: Capafóns et al. (1998)
"Systematic Desensitisation for Fear of Flying"
The Aim: To test if Systematic Desensitisation (a therapy based on Classical Conditioning) actually works to cure a fear of flying.
The Procedure:
Participants with a phobia of flying were split into two groups:
1. The Treatment Group: Received 12-15 sessions of therapy.
2. The Control Group: A "waiting list" group (they received no therapy yet).
They measured fear using self-report scales (how they felt) and physiological measures (like heart rate and muscle tension) while watching a video of a flight.
The Findings:
The treatment group showed a massive reduction in fear and lower heart rates compared to the control group. In fact, \(90\%\) of the treatment group showed significant improvement!
Conclusion: Systematic Desensitisation is a highly effective, scientifically-proven way to "unlearn" a phobia.
Summary Table: Which Study is Which?
Study: Watson & Rayner (1920)
Theory: Classical Conditioning (Creating a phobia)
Key Finding: Fear can be conditioned and generalised to similar objects.
Study: Becker et al. (2002)
Theory: Social Learning Theory (Media influence)
Key Finding: Western TV models led to increased eating disorders in Fiji.
Study: Bastian et al. (2011)
Theory: Social Learning Theory (Video games)
Key Finding: Violent games lead to "dehumanizing" oneself and others.
Study: Capafóns et al. (1998)
Theory: Classical Conditioning (Curing a phobia)
Key Finding: Systematic Desensitisation successfully reduces fear of flying.
Common Mistakes to Avoid
1. Confusing the Contemporary Studies: You only need to know the specific contemporary study your teacher has chosen for your class. However, you must know Watson and Rayner (the classic study)!
2. Ethics in Watson and Rayner: Many students say it was "unreliable." That's wrong—it was actually quite reliable because they used a set procedure. The real problem was that it was unethical.
3. Vague Evaluation: Don't just say a study is "good." Use the key terms like Generalisability, Reliability, and Validity to explain why it is good or bad.
Quick Review Box
The "Little Albert" mnemonic:
Rat (Neutral Stimulus)
Awful Noise (Unconditioned Stimulus)
Tears (Unconditioned Response)
Eventually, Rat = Tears! (Conditioned Stimulus and Response)