Case study: a major city in a developing or emerging country — challenges of rapid growth

Introduction to Urban Challenges

In the previous chapter, we looked at why cities in developing and emerging countries (like Lagos, Mumbai, or Rio de Janeiro) are growing so fast. While this growth brings opportunities, it also creates massive pressure. Imagine a city where the population grows by hundreds of people every single day—the local government simply cannot build houses or pipes fast enough to keep up!

In this chapter, we will explore the specific challenges caused by this rapid growth and how people are trying to manage them. This is a vital part of your Paper 2: The Human Environment exam.

Note: To understand how these cities started and why they are growing, see the chapter "Case study: a major city in a developing or emerging country — context and growth."

Challenge 1: Housing and Squatter Settlements

When thousands of people move to a city from the countryside, they often cannot afford "formal" housing (houses built with legal permission and connected to utilities). This leads to the growth of squatter settlements (also called slums, shanty towns, or favelas).

• Variable Quality: Houses are often made from scavenged materials like corrugated iron, plastic sheets, and wood. They are often built on dangerous land that no one else wants, such as steep hillsides or marshland.
• Overcrowding: Many people live in very small spaces. This allows diseases like cholera or TB to spread quickly.
• Lack of Rights: Residents usually do not own the land. This means they can be evicted at any time if the government wants to use the land for something else.

Key Takeaway: Rapid growth outpaces the supply of affordable housing, forcing the poorest residents into illegal, dangerous, and overcrowded slums.

Challenge 2: Infrastructure and Services

Infrastructure refers to the basic physical systems of a city, like roads, water pipes, and power lines. Services include things like schools and hospitals.

Variable Quality and Provision

In rapidly growing cities, the "provision" (the amount available) of these services is often variable—which means it is not the same for everyone. Wealthy areas might have high-speed internet and clean water, while nearby slums have nothing.

• Water and Sanitation: Many residents have to buy expensive water from tankers or use polluted rivers. Clean toilets are rare, leading to "open defecation" and contaminated water supplies.
• Electricity: People often "tap" into power lines illegally. This is dangerous and causes frequent blackouts across the city.
• Education and Health: There are often not enough teachers or doctors. Schools are overcrowded, and hospitals are overwhelmed by the number of patients.

Did you know? In some major emerging cities, over \(50\%\) of the population might live in areas without a formal connection to the sewage system!

Challenge 3: Employment Problems

Not everyone who moves to the city finds a "good" job. This leads to two major issues: under-employment and informal employment.

Formal vs. Informal Employment

In your exam, it is very important to know the difference between these two:

• Formal Sector: Jobs that have a legal contract, set hours, and pay taxes. Workers have rights (like sick pay).
• Informal Sector: Jobs that are not "on the books." Examples include street vending, shining shoes, or picking through rubbish to find materials to sell.

The Risks of the Informal Sector

• There is no "safety net"—if you get sick and can't work, you don't get paid.
• Conditions can be dangerous, and there are no laws to protect workers.
• Under-employment occurs when people are doing jobs that don't use all their skills, or they aren't working as many hours as they would like because there isn't enough work available.

Challenge 4: Pollution and Waste

Rapidly growing cities produce a mountain of waste and pollution that the city's systems often can't handle.

• Air Pollution: Caused by old, poorly maintained vehicles stuck in massive traffic jams, as well as smoke from factories. This leads to respiratory (breathing) problems for residents.
• Water Pollution: Industrial chemicals and human sewage are often dumped directly into rivers because there aren't enough treatment plants.
• Waste Disposal: Most cities do not have a regular bin collection for every street. Huge "rubbish mountains" grow, which attract rats and can catch fire, releasing toxic fumes.

Quick Review: Think of the 4 "P"s of challenges: People (overcrowding), Pipes (lack of infrastructure), Pay (informal jobs), and Pollution.

Management: How are these challenges being fixed?

Governments and communities use different strategies to manage these problems. These are usually divided into "Top-down" and "Bottom-up" approaches.

1. Top-Down Management

These are large-scale projects organised by the government or big international organisations.
Example: Building a new mass-transit railway system to reduce traffic and air pollution, or clearing a slum to build large blocks of flats with proper toilets.
Pros: Can help a huge number of people at once; uses professional engineering.
Cons: Very expensive; can force people to move away from their communities; often ignores what the local people actually need.

2. Bottom-Up Management

These are small-scale projects organised by local communities or NGOs (charities).
Example: A "Self-Help Scheme" where the government provides breeze blocks and roofing materials, and the local people build their own improved houses.
Pros: Cheap; uses local skills; people feel they "own" the project so they take care of it.
Cons: Can only help a small area at a time; doesn't have the money for big infrastructure like sewage plants.

3. Improving Services and Infrastructure

Cities may also try to manage growth by:

• Installing "water ATMs" where people can get clean water for a small price.
• Promoting waste-to-energy schemes where rubbish is burnt to create electricity.
• Improving the informal economy by giving street vendors legal permits so they have more security.

Maths Skill: Percentage Change

In Paper 2, you might be asked to calculate the percentage change in a city's population or waste production. Use this formula:

\( \text{Percentage Change} = \frac{\text{New Value} - \text{Old Value}}{\text{Old Value}} \times 100 \)

Example: If a slum had \(20,000\) people in 2010 and \(30,000\) people in 2020, the change is \(10,000\).
\( \frac{10,000}{20,000} = 0.5 \)
\( 0.5 \times 100 = 50\% \) growth.

Summary: Key Takeaways

• Rapid Urbanisation leads to a massive gap between the number of people and the amount of housing/services available.
• Informal employment is a survival strategy for people who cannot find formal jobs, but it is risky.
• Pollution (air, water, and waste) is a major health hazard in emerging cities.
• Management involves a mix of expensive Top-down government projects and community-led Bottom-up schemes.