Introduction to Chapter 3.6: White Supremacist Violence and the Red Summer
In the previous chapters, we learned how Reconstruction was defeated and how Jim Crow laws (Topic 3.5) were used to legally separate Black and white Americans. In this chapter, we look at the darker side of that era: the use of violence and terror to enforce white supremacy. We will explore the "Red Summer" of 1919 and the Tulsa Race Massacre of 1921. While this history is difficult, it is also a story of resistance and resilience—showing how African Americans fought back against injustice through both action and art.
The Context of Violence
By the early 20th century, white supremacist violence became a tool to maintain social and economic control over African Americans. This violence often peaked when Black communities showed signs of economic success or when they demanded their rights as citizens. This period is often characterized by lynching and organized racial massacres meant to destroy Black neighborhoods and political power.
What was the "Red Summer"?
The term Red Summer refers to the late spring, summer, and early autumn of 1919. During this time, dozens of race riots and massacres broke out in cities across the United States. It was called "Red" because of the bloodshed. Many of these conflicts occurred because Black veterans were returning home from World War I expecting the same "democracy" they had fought for abroad, which led to increased tensions with white citizens who wanted to maintain the status quo.
Quick Review: Why did Red Summer happen?
1. Job Competition: Increased competition for jobs in northern and southern cities.
2. The Great Migration: Large numbers of African Americans moving to cities (Topic 3.16).
3. Veterans' Rights: Black soldiers returning from WWI demanded respect and civil rights.
Resistance Through Poetry: Claude McKay
In the face of the Red Summer violence, African Americans did not simply give up. One of the most famous responses was a poem titled "If We Must Die" (1919) by Claude McKay. McKay was a key figure in the New Negro Movement (Topic 3.11).
Key Themes of "If We Must Die":
• Dignity in Death: McKay argues that if African Americans must die in these riots, they should do so "nobly" and with honor, not like "hunted hogs."
• Fighting Back: The poem encourages collective resistance. Even if the enemy is stronger, McKay writes that they should "deal one death-blow" back.
• Universal Resilience: While written about racial violence, the poem’s message of standing up to oppression is so powerful it has been used by many different groups fighting for freedom worldwide.
The Tulsa Race Massacre (1921)
Two years after the Red Summer, one of the most devastating acts of racial violence in U.S. history occurred in Tulsa, Oklahoma. This event is known as the Tulsa Race Massacre.
The "Black Wall Street"
Tulsa’s Greenwood District was a thriving, wealthy Black community often called "Black Wall Street." It had its own banks, hotels, theaters, and successful businesses. This economic success was a source of pride for African Americans but a source of intense resentment for many white residents.
The Destruction
In 1921, a white mob attacked Greenwood. Over the course of two days, the mob burned more than 35 square blocks to the ground. Thousands were left homeless, and hundreds of Black residents were killed. The Tulsa Race Massacre photographs (1921) serve as primary source evidence of this destruction. These photos show:
• Plumes of smoke rising over the city.
• Burned-out shells of buildings that were once thriving businesses.
• Black residents being detained by National Guard members.
Key Takeaway: The Tulsa Massacre wasn't just a "riot"—it was a targeted destruction of Black economic independence and wealth.
Connecting the Dots
To help you remember these concepts for the AP exam, keep these connections in mind:
Memory Aid: The 3 R's of Topic 3.6
• Red Summer: The 1919 season of intense racial violence and blood.
• Resistance: Claude McKay’s poem "If We Must Die" showing Black courage.
• Ruins: The physical destruction of Black Wall Street in Tulsa shown in the 1921 photographs.
Common Mistakes to Avoid:
• Don't confuse Red Summer with the Red Scare. While they happened around the same time, the "Red Summer" is specifically about racial violence, while the "Red Scare" is about the fear of communism.
• Don't assume Black communities were passive victims. As McKay’s poem and historical records show, African Americans often fought back to defend their homes and lives.
• Focus on the dates. Remember that Red Summer is 1919 and Tulsa is 1921. Both are part of the broader "Defeat of Reconstruction" era where white supremacy was being violently re-asserted.
Summary Checklist
Can you explain...?
• What the Red Summer was and what caused it?
• The main message of Claude McKay’s "If We Must Die"?
• Why the Greenwood District was significant before the 1921 massacre?
• What the Tulsa Race Massacre photographs reveal about the event?