Welcome to Grammar Mastery: Word Order, Time Expressions, Cleft Sentences, Comparatives, and Indirect Speech
Welcome! In this guide, we will unpack some of the most versatile grammatical structures in the AQA AS Spanish (7691) specification. Moving beyond simple sentence structures is what lifts your Spanish from GCSE standard up to the sophistication required for AS Level.
Mastering these five areas will directly improve your performance across all three examination components:
• Paper 1: Listening, Reading and Writing (comprehension passages and grammatical transformations)
• Paper 2: Writing (translation into Spanish and your film/literature essay)
• Paper 3: Speaking (spontaneous conversation and stimulus discussions)
Don't worry if some of these patterns look unfamiliar or complex at first. We will break each concept down into simple formulas, step-by-step rules, and clear examples.
1. Word Order (El orden de las palabras)
In English, we strictly follow a Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) pattern (e.g., "The teacher has arrived"). However, Spanish word order is much more flexible and frequently uses Verb-Subject (VS) inversion.
A. Subject Following Verb (Inversion)
In Spanish, placing the subject after the verb is natural and standard in the following contexts:
1. Verbs of Arrival, Existence, and Inchoative Verbs:
When introducing someone arriving or something appearing, the verb comes first.
• Example: Ha llegado el profesor. (The teacher has arrived.)
2. Verbs of Liking and Emotion (gustar-type verbs):
The grammatical subject is the thing being liked, so it sits naturally at the end.
• Formula: \( \text{Indirect Object Pronoun} + \text{Verb} + \text{Subject} \)
• Example: Me gustan las patatas. (I like potatoes / Potatoes are pleasing to me.)
3. Questions and Dialogue Tags (Reporting Clauses):
Whenever you form a question or tag speech in an essay or narrative, invert the order.
• Question Example: ¿Qué dice el artículo? (What does the article say?)
• Reporting Example: —Gracias —dijo Elena. ("Thank you," said Elena.)
B. Focalisation and Topicalisation [Receptive: R]
Note: In the AQA specification, structures marked [R] are tested for comprehension (receptive skills), though using them correctly in your writing and speaking will showcase high-level syntax.
1. Left-Dislocation (Topicalisation):
Placing a topic word or pronoun at the very front of the sentence draws immediate attention to it.
• Example: Tú ¿qué opinas? (You, what do you think?)
2. Clitic Reduplication (Emphatic Fronted Objects):
When you place a direct or indirect object at the start of a sentence for emphasis, Spanish requires a "copy" pronoun (a clitic pronoun) directly before the verb.
• Example: A Cristiano lo odian. (Cristiano, they hate him.)
Why? Without the pronoun lo, the sentence sounds incomplete in Spanish. The pronoun bridges the fronted noun back to the verb.
Common Pitfalls to Avoid
• Avoid Anglicised word order: Do not force English SVO onto every sentence (e.g., writing *El profesor ha llegado all the time when introducing an arrival).
• Missing pronouns: Forgetting the redundant pronoun when fronting an object (e.g., writing *A mi hermano vi ayer instead of A mi hermano lo vi ayer).
Key Takeaway
Spanish loves putting the verb before the subject when stating arrivals, using gustar, and asking questions. If you move an object to the front for emphasis, always attach its matching pronoun (me, te, lo, la, le, nos, os, los, las, les) before the verb.
2. Time Expressions with Hace / Hacía and Desde Hace / Hacía
Expressing how long an action has been happening, had been happening, or when it finished is an essential skill for translation and essay writing.
A. Actions Continuing into the Present ("Have been doing something for...")
Use these patterns when an action started in the past and is still continuing right now.
Pattern 1: \( \text{Hace} + [\text{time period}] + \text{que} + [\text{Present Tense Verb}] \)
• Example: Hace dos años que vivo en Madrid. (I have been living in Madrid for two years.)
Pattern 2: \( [\text{Present Tense Verb}] + \text{desde hace} + [\text{time period}] \)
• Example: Vivo en Madrid desde hace dos años. (I have lived / have been living in Madrid for two years.)
Pattern 3 (Llevar + Gerund): \( \text{Llevar (in present)} + [\text{time period}] + [\text{Gerund}] \)
• Example: Llevo dos años viviendo en Madrid. (I have been living in Madrid for two years.)
B. Actions Continuing into a Point in the Past ("Had been doing something for...")
Use these patterns when describing an ongoing past action that was interrupted or framed by another past event.
Pattern 1: \( \text{Hacía} + [\text{time period}] + \text{que} + [\text{Imperfect Tense Verb}] \)
• Example: Hacía dos años que vivía allí cuando cambió de trabajo. (I had been living there for two years when he changed jobs.)
Pattern 2: \( [\text{Imperfect Tense Verb}] + \text{desde hacía} + [\text{time period}] \)
• Example: Vivía allí desde hacía dos años. (I had been living there for two years.)
C. Actions Completed in the Past ("...ago")
When an action is completely finished, use the Preterite tense.
Pattern: \( [\text{Preterite Verb}] + \text{hace} + [\text{time period}] \) OR \( \text{Hace} + [\text{time period}] + \text{que} + [\text{Preterite Verb}] \)
• Example 1: Llegó hace tres días. (He arrived three days ago.)
• Example 2: Hace tres días que llegó. (It is three days since he arrived / He arrived three days ago.)
Quick Comparison Guide
• Vivo aquí desde hace un año = I live here and I still live here (Present).
• Vivía aquí desde hacía un año = I lived there at that time in the past (Imperfect).
• Llegué hace un año = I arrived one year ago and the arrival is finished (Preterite).
Common Pitfalls to Avoid
• Never translate "for" with para: Writing *Vivo aquí para dos años is incorrect. Always use desde hace or hace... que for duration.
• Never translate "ago" with atrás or pasado: Use hace (e.g., hace dos días, not *dos días atrás).
• Tense mixing: Do not use the Preterite if the action is still happening today.
Key Takeaway
Use Present + desde hace for ongoing present actions, Imperfect + desde hacía for ongoing past actions, and Preterite + hace for completed actions that happened "...ago".
3. Cleft Sentences (Oraciones hendidas / focalizadoras)
A "cleft" sentence (from the verb to cleave, meaning to split) is a structure used to put a spotlight on one specific piece of information (the time, the place, the person, or the reason).
Instead of saying "We met in Madrid", you say "It was in Madrid where we met".
A. Standard Cleft Sentences (Ser + Prepositional Phrase + Relative Adverb/Pronoun)
Formula: \( \text{Form of \textit{Ser}} + [\text{Emphasised Element}] + [\text{donde / cuando / como / quien}] + [\text{Rest of Sentence}] \)
• Focus on Place:
Fue en Madrid donde nos conocimos. (It was in Madrid where we met.)
• Focus on Time:
Fue en 2020 cuando empezó la crisis. (It was in 2020 when the crisis began.)
• Focus on Manner:
Fue así como solucionaron el problema. (It was like that / in that way that they solved the problem.)
B. Pseudo-Cleft Sentences (Relative Clause + Ser)
This construction starts with a connector like Lo que (What / That which) or El que / La que (The one who) to highlight an idea or person.
• Focus on an Idea/Abstract Topic:
Lo que más me preocupa es el desempleo juvenil. (What worries me most is youth unemployment.)
• Focus on a Specific Person:
El que tomó la decisión fue el director. (The one who made the decision was the headteacher/director.)
C. The Tense Agreement Rule
The verb ser must strictly agree with the tense of the main verb in the sentence:
• Present: Es hoy cuando debemos actuar. (It is today when we must act.)
• Preterite: Fue ayer cuando llegó la carta. (It was yesterday when the letter arrived.)
• Imperfect: Era entonces cuando vivíamos mejor. (It was back then when we lived better.)
Common Pitfalls to Avoid
• Using que instead of relative adverbs: In English, we say "It was in Madrid THAT we met". In Spanish, use donde for places and cuando for times (Fue en Madrid donde nos conocimos, not *Fue en Madrid que...).
• Tense mismatch: Avoid mixing present es with past events (e.g., avoid *Es en 2020 cuando empezó...; use Fue en 2020 cuando empezó...).
Key Takeaway
Cleft sentences elevate the style of your Paper 2 essays. Highlight places with Fue en... donde, times with Fue en... cuando, and concepts with Lo que... es....
4. Comparative Constructions (Estructuras comparativas)
Comparatives allow you to weigh arguments, evaluate characters in set texts, and compare social trends.
A. Comparisons of Inequality (Superiority & Inferiority)
1. Basic Adjectives, Adverbs, and Nouns:
• Formula: \( \text{más / menos} + [\text{adjective / adverb / noun}] + \text{que} \)
• Example (Adjective): Este método es más rápido que el anterior. (This method is faster than the previous one.)
• Example (Noun): Tenemos menos problemas que antes. (We have fewer problems than before.)
2. Comparing with Numbers (Affirmative Statements):
When a numeral immediately follows "more than" or "less than" in a positive statement, use de instead of que.
• Formula: \( \text{más / menos} + \text{\textbf{de}} + [\text{Number}] \)
• Example: Hay más de cincuenta personas en la sala. (There are more than fifty people in the room.)
3. Comparing Against a Clause or Expectation [Receptive: R]:
When comparing something to an abstract idea, expectation, or clause, Spanish uses special relative forms:
• For abstract ideas/clauses: Use de lo que
• Example: Tiene más dinero de lo que creía. (He has more money than I thought.)
• For countable nouns matching a gender/number: Use del que / de la que / de los que / de las que
• Example: Compró más libros de los que necesitaba. (He bought more books than he needed — libros is masculine plural, so we use de los que).
B. Comparisons of Equality
1. With Adjectives and Adverbs:
• Formula: \( \text{tan} + [\text{adjective / adverb}] + \text{como} \)
• Example: El protagonista es tan inteligente como su rival. (The protagonist is as intelligent as his rival.)
• Example: Llegó tan pronto como pudo. (He arrived as soon as he could.)
2. With Nouns (Agreement Required):
Tanto acts as an adjective and must agree in gender and number with the noun.
• Formula: \( \text{tanto / tanta / tantos / tantas} + [\text{Noun}] + \text{como} \)
• Example: Las mujeres no tenían tantas oportunidades como los hombres. (Women did not have as many opportunities as men.)
3. With Verbs:
• Formula: \( [\text{Verb}] + \text{tanto como} \)
• Example: Trabaja tanto como su hermana. (He works as much as his sister.)
Quick Memory Trick: Tan vs. Tanto
• Tan is short and invariable: use it before single adjectives and adverbs (tan alto, tan rápido).
• Tanto/a/os/as changes its ending: use it to describe quantities of nouns (tantas casas, tantos coches) or after verbs (come tanto).
Common Pitfalls to Avoid
• Using tan with nouns: Writing *tan problemas como is incorrect. It must be tantos problemas como.
• Using que with numbers: Writing *más que diez in positive sentences. Remember: \( \text{numbers} \implies \text{\textit{de}} \) (más de diez).
Key Takeaway
Use más/menos... que for general comparisons, but switch to más/menos de before numbers. For equality, use tan... como for descriptions and tanto/a/os/as... como for quantities.
5. Indirect Speech (El estilo indirecto)
Indirect speech (reported speech) is how you report what someone else said, asked, or commanded without quoting them word-for-word.
A. Reporting Statements (Verb in Present vs. Verb in Past)
Case 1: The reporting verb is in the Present tense
When reporting in the present (e.g., Dice que...), the tense of the original statement does not change.
• Direct: «Vengo mañana.» (I am coming tomorrow.)
• Indirect: Dice que viene mañana. (He says that he is coming tomorrow.)
Case 2: The reporting verb is in a Past tense (Preterite or Imperfect)
When the reporting verb is in the past (e.g., Dijo que... / Explicó que...), you must step the subordinate verb back in time:
• Present \( \implies \) Imperfect:
Direct: «Tengo hambre.»
Indirect: Dijo que tenía hambre. (He said he was hungry.)
• Preterite or Present Perfect \( \implies \) Pluperfect (Pluscuamperfecto):
Direct: «Llegué tarde.» / «He llegado tarde.»
Indirect: Explicó que había llegado tarde. (He explained that he had arrived late.)
• Future \( \implies \) Conditional:
Direct: «Iré al cine.»
Indirect: Dijo que iría al cine. (He said he would go to the cinema.)
B. Reporting Commands and Requests (The Subjunctive Rule)
In English, we report commands using an infinitive ("He told me to study"). In Spanish, reporting a command or wish always requires the Subjunctive introduced by que.
1. Reporting in the Present: \( \implies \) Present Subjunctive
• Direct: «¡Estudia!» (Study!)
• Indirect: Me dice que estudie. (He tells me to study.)
2. Reporting in the Past: \( \implies \) Imperfect Subjunctive
• Direct: «¡Sal de aquí!» (Get out of here!)
• Indirect: Me ordenó que saliera de allí. (He ordered me to leave there.)
C. Reporting Questions
• Yes/No Questions: Connect with si (if/whether).
Example: «¿Quieres ir?» \( \implies \) Me preguntó si quería ir.
• Information Questions: Keep the original question word and retain its written accent mark.
Example 1: «¿Dónde vives?» \( \implies \) Me preguntó dónde vivía.
Example 2: «¿Qué hora es?» \( \implies \) Me preguntó qué hora era.
D. Deictic Shifts (Time and Place Adjustments)
When reporting speech from another perspective or time, shift reference words accordingly:
• hoy (today) \( \implies \) aquel día / ese día (that day)
• ayer (yesterday) \( \implies \) el día anterior (the day before / the previous day)
• mañana (tomorrow) \( \implies \) al día siguiente (the following day)
• aquí / acá (here) \( \implies \) allí / allá (there)
• este / esta (this) \( \implies \) aquel / ese / aquella / esa (that)
Common Pitfalls to Avoid
• Literal translation of English infinitives: Never translate "He told me to go" as *Me dijo de ir. You must use the Subjunctive: Me dijo que fuera / fuese.
• Dropping question accents: Forgetting the written accent on reported question words (e.g., writing *Me preguntó donde estaba instead of Me preguntó dónde estaba).
Key Takeaway
When reporting past statements, step tenses back one stage: Present becomes Imperfect, Preterite becomes Pluperfect, and Future becomes Conditional. For commands, never use an infinitive—always use que + Subjunctive!
Quick Reference Summary & Exam Checklist
Before submitting your Paper 2 translation or essay, run through this quick checklist:
1. Word Order: Did I place the verb before the subject after arrival verbs or gustar? If I fronted a direct object, did I add the pronoun (A mi amigo lo llamé)?
2. Time Expressions: Did I use desde hace with the Present tense for ongoing actions instead of para?
3. Cleft Sentences: Did I match the tense of ser (e.g., Fue en 1936 cuando...)?
4. Comparatives: Did I use más de before numbers in positive sentences? Does tanto/a/os/as agree with its noun?
5. Indirect Speech: Did I use the Imperfect Subjunctive to report a past command (Me dijo que viniera)? Did I keep written accents on indirect question words (qué, cómo, dónde, cuándo)?