Gender and Theology: OCR A Level Religious Studies (H573)
Welcome to your study guide for Gender and Theology! This topic sits within Component 03: Developments in religious thought (Christianity) under the theme of Society. In this chapter, we will explore how feminist theologians have challenged traditional Christian ideas about God, Jesus, and authority.
Don't worry if this topic feels intense at first. At its heart, this chapter asks one big question: Is Christianity fundamentally sexist, or can it be reformed to include and liberate women? To answer this, we will contrast two influential feminist thinkers: Rosemary Radford Ruether (a reformist Christian) and Mary Daly (a radical post-Christian).
1. Setting the Scene: What is Feminist Theology?
For centuries, traditional Christian theology used male language to talk about God (calling God "Father", "King", or "Lord") and focused on male leaders. Feminist theologians examine whether this language has led to the oppression of women in the Church and wider society.
Important Exam Distinction: Make sure you do not confuse Gender and Society with Gender and Theology:
• Gender and Society focuses on secular feminism, societal roles, and official church documents (such as Mulieris Dignitatem).
• Gender and Theology focuses strictly on theological ideas: God-language, whether a male Messiah can save women, and the views of Ruether and Daly.
2. Rosemary Radford Ruether: The Reformist Approach
Rosemary Radford Ruether is a Catholic feminist theologian. Her key work is Sexism and God-Talk: Toward a Feminist Theology (1983).
A. Core Position: Reform from Within
Ruether argues that Christianity is not inherently or essentially sexist. Instead, it has picked up historical and cultural patriarchal baggage over time. She believes Christianity contains a powerful prophetic-liberating tradition that can be recovered to reform the religion from within.
B. The Messiah: Servant-King vs. Davidic Warrior
Traditional Jewish expectations often looked for a Davidic Messiah—a powerful male warrior-king who would conquer enemies with military strength. Ruether points out that Jesus radically rejected this model:
• Jesus did not act as a dominating ruler; he acted as a servant-king / liberating messiah.
• He spent his time with outcasts, the poor, the sick, and women.
• Jesus redefined power as self-giving love and service rather than patriarchal domination.
• Therefore, Jesus' maleness was merely a historical accident of his time, not a divine requirement that exalts men over women.
C. Reclaiming Wisdom (Sophia) and "God/ess"
Ruether searches scripture and early Christian history to uncover forgotten feminine imagery for the divine:
• Sophia: In the Old Testament and early Christian thought, divine Wisdom is personified in feminine terms as Sophia.
• God/ess: Ruether uses the term "God/ess" to break down exclusively masculine language. This term does not mean combining two separate deities, but rather shows that God encompasses both masculine and feminine principles without being limited by gender.
Quick Summary of Ruether:
• View of Christianity: Accidentally patriarchal, but redeemable.
• Christology: Jesus as the prophetic servant-leader, not a dominating warrior.
• God-language: Recovering Sophia and using terms like "God/ess".
3. Mary Daly: The Radical Post-Christian Approach
Mary Daly took a much more radical stance. Her famous work is Beyond God the Father (1973). Daly began as a Catholic theologian but concluded that Christianity is completely beyond repair.
A. Core Position: Irredeemably Patriarchal
Daly argues that Christianity is inherently and structurally oppressive to women. Because patriarchal power is woven into the very fabric of Christian doctrine, Daly believes women must abandon Christianity entirely and create a post-Christian spirituality.
B. "If God is male, then the male is God"
This famous dictum is the cornerstone of Daly’s critique. She explains that when God is consistently described in male terms (Father, King, Lord, Son):
• Men begin to see themselves as closer to the divine than women.
• Male authority in society and the church becomes seen as natural and God-given.
• It psychologically and culturally justifies the domination of women by men.
C. The "Unholy Trinity"
Daly argues that patriarchal religion and society maintain power through a destructive threefold mechanism:
1. Rape: Represents physical violence, systematic phallocentric oppression, and the abuse of power over women.
2. Genocide: The collective slaughter, erasure, and marginalization of women and their autonomy throughout history.
3. War: Militarism and violence driven by male aggression and political domination.
D. Critiques of Major Theologians
Daly points out that mainstream Christian history is full of explicit misogyny from revered thinkers:
• Tertullian: Called women "the devil's gateway" for their association with the Fall.
• Augustine: Suggested that woman is not made in the image of God in her own right, but only when united with man.
• Thomas Aquinas: Described woman as a "misbegotten male" (mas occasionatus), a defective product of reproduction.
• Karl Barth and Dietrich Bonhoeffer: Critiqued by Daly for continuing to reinforce male headship and female subordination in domestic and social life.
E. God as "Be-ing"
Instead of viewing God as a static, transcendent male noun ("God the Father"), Daly proposed understanding the divine as a dynamic verb: "Be-ing". For Daly, "Be-ing" represents a continuous, unfolding process of personal growth and liberation.
Quick Summary of Daly:
• View of Christianity: Essentially patriarchal and irredeemable.
• God-language: Reject "God the Father"; embrace God as dynamic "Be-ing".
• Solution: Leave Christianity behind for post-Christian spirituality.
4. Comparing Ruether and Daly
Here is a handy summary table to help you compare the two thinkers directly:
Rosemary Radford Ruether (Reformist):
• Relationship to the Church: Works within the Christian tradition.
• View of Sexism: Accidental / historical; can be peeled away.
• View of Jesus: Prophetic servant-king who stood with the oppressed.
• Language for God: "God/ess", reclaiming biblical Sophia (Wisdom).
• Goal: Reformation of Christian theology and practice.
Mary Daly (Radical / Post-Christian):
• Relationship to the Church: Leaves Christianity behind.
• View of Sexism: Essential / structural; built into the foundations.
• View of Jesus: The male incarnation inevitably reinforces male superiority.
• Language for God: Dynamic verb "Be-ing" rather than a male noun.
• Goal: Post-Christian feminist liberation.
5. Core AO2 Debates and Evaluative Questions
In the OCR exam, 60% of your marks come from AO2 (Analysis and Evaluation). You need to weigh up both sides of these central debates:
Debate 1: Can Christianity be depatriarchalized?
• Yes (Supporting Ruether): The core message of the Gospel is one of liberation. By stripping away historical patriarchal cultural layers and rediscovering early traditions (such as Sophia), Christianity can be reformed.
• No (Supporting Daly): The foundation of Christianity relies on male imagery (God as Father, Jesus as Son). You cannot simply remove centuries of ingrained patriarchal doctrine without destroying the religion itself.
Debate 2: Can a male Saviour save women?
• Yes: Ruether argues that Jesus' message was one of universal liberation. His biological maleness is historically accidental; what matters is his counter-cultural critique of patriarchal power and his role as a servant-leader.
• No: Daly and other radical critics argue that a male incarnation permanently privileges men. If the supreme representation of God on Earth is male, maleness will always be valued above femaleness in the church.
Debate 3: Is language about God exclusively male?
• Yes: Traditional liturgy, scripture, and theological treatises overwhelmingly refer to God using masculine pronouns and titles ("Father", "Lord", "King").
• No: The Bible also contains feminine metaphors (such as God described as a nursing mother or divine Wisdom as Sophia). Reformists argue that God transcends gender entirely.
Debate 4: Is Christianity essentially or accidentally sexist?
• Accidentally (Ruether): Christianity arose in patriarchal ancient Mediterranean cultures. The sexism reflects the culture of the human authors, not the divine revelation itself.
• Essentially (Daly): The consistent teaching from the Church Fathers (Tertullian, Augustine, Aquinas) down to modern theologians shows that male dominance is embedded in the core doctrines of the faith.
6. Common Exam Mistakes to Avoid
• Conflating the two gender units: Do not write about secular feminists (like Betty Friedan or Simone de Beauvoir) or papal encyclicals (like Mulieris Dignitatem) in a Gender and Theology essay. Stick strictly to theological debates, Ruether, and Daly.
• Slogan-dropping without analysis: When quoting Daly's "If God is male, then the male is God", make sure you explain why—explain how male language creates a psychological and social hierarchy that justifies male rule.
• Misrepresenting Ruether: Ruether does not reject Jesus. She defends a reimagined Christology where Jesus represents prophetic servant-leadership rather than imperial conquest.
• Ignoring AO2: Do not spend your entire essay describing what Ruether and Daly said (AO1). Spend at least 60% of your effort evaluating which argument is more coherent, logical, and convincing (AO2).
Key Takeaways
• Rosemary Radford Ruether believes Christianity has a recoverable prophetic-liberating core; she advocates for the servant-messiah, Sophia, and the concept of "God/ess".
• Mary Daly argues that Christianity is inherently patriarchal and beyond saving; she exposes the "Unholy Trinity" (rape, genocide, war) and promotes God as "Be-ing" in a post-Christian spirituality.
• The central debate centers on whether Christianity is accidentally sexist (reformable) or essentially sexist (irredeemable).