Welcome to Individual Differences: Understanding Disorders

Welcome to your study guide for the Individual Differences Area in OCR AS Level Psychology (H167). In this chapter, we explore the key theme of Understanding Disorders by looking at two landmark core studies:

• The Classic Study: Freud (1909) — Analysis of a phobia in a five-year-old boy (Little Hans)
• The Contemporary Study: Baron-Cohen et al. (1997) — Another advanced test of theory of mind: evidence from very high functioning adults with autism or Asperger syndrome

Don't worry if psychological theories of disorders seem complex at first! We will break down each study step-by-step, highlighting key terms, crucial numbers, and common exam pitfalls to help you achieve top marks.

1. The Core Theme: Understanding Disorders

The Individual Differences Area focuses on how people vary in their behaviour, personality, thoughts, and experiences. Rather than looking for universal rules that apply to everyone equally, this area looks at what makes individuals unique, including why some people develop psychological disorders or cognitive differences.

In this section, we compare two vastly different approaches to Understanding Disorders:
1. The Psychodynamic Approach (Freud): Explains disorders (like phobias) as the result of unconscious emotional conflicts and early childhood psychosexual development.
2. The Cognitive / Biological Approach (Baron-Cohen et al.): Explains disorders (like Autism and Asperger Syndrome) in terms of specific cognitive processing differences, specifically a deficit in Theory of Mind (ToM).

2. Classic Study: Freud (1909)

Background and Theory

Sigmund Freud proposed the theory of Psychosexual Development. He claimed that children pass through stages where their pleasure-seeking energy is focused on different parts of the body. During the Phallic Stage (occurring roughly between the ages of 3 and 6 years), boys experience the Oedipus Complex.

• The Oedipus Complex: A boy unconsciously develops sexual desires for his mother and views his father as a rival.
• Castration Anxiety: The boy fears his powerful father will discover these feelings and punish him by cutting off his penis.
• Defence Mechanism (Displacement): Because the fear of the father is too overwhelming to deal with consciously, the child redirects (displaces) this anxiety onto a safer external object, such as an animal.

Aim of the Study

Freud aimed to provide empirical evidence for the existence of the Oedipus complex and to demonstrate that a phobia is caused by unconscious conflicts being displaced onto an external object.

Participant and Methodology

• Participant: A young boy given the pseudonym "Little Hans" (real name Herbert Graf), aged 3 to 5 years old, living in Vienna.
• Method: A longitudinal case study. Hans was studied over a period of two years.
• Data Collection: Hans’s father (a supporter and follower of Freud) observed Hans, recorded conversations, and sent regular letters to Freud. Freud analysed these letters and advised the father on how to respond. Important note: Freud met Little Hans face-to-face only once!

Key Evidence & Freud's Interpretations

1. The "Widdler" and Castration Anxiety:
Hans showed an early fascination with his penis (which he called his "widdler"). His mother once threatened that if he did not stop playing with it, she would send for a doctor to cut it off. Freud argued this triggered Hans's deep-seated castration anxiety.

2. The Horse Phobia (Displacement):
Hans developed a severe fear of white horses, particularly horses pulling heavy carts, horses with dark blinkers and muzzles, and horses that might fall down or bite him. Freud interpreted this phobia as a direct displacement of Hans's fear of his father:
• The dark blinkers and muzzle represented the father's dark eyeglasses and mustache.
• The fear of a horse biting him represented the fear of his father castrating him.
• The fear of a horse falling down represented Hans's unconscious wish for his father to die so Hans could have his mother to himself.

3. The Giraffe Dream:
Hans described a dream with a "big giraffe" and a "crumpled giraffe." Hans took the crumpled giraffe away, and the big giraffe called out in protest, but Hans sat on the crumpled one anyway. Freud interpreted the big giraffe as the father, the crumpled giraffe as the mother (with genital folds), and Hans taking it away as his desire to possess his mother and replace his father.

4. The Plumber Fantasy:
Hans imagined that a plumber came to the house, removed his bottom and small widdler with pincers, and replaced them with a larger bottom and a bigger widdler. Freud interpreted this fantasy as the resolution of the Oedipus complex: Hans resolved his conflict by identifying with his father, realising that he too would grow up to have a large "widdler" like his dad.

Conclusion

Freud concluded that Hans’s phobia was a symbolic expression of his unconscious Oedipal conflict and castration anxiety. Once these unconscious thoughts were brought into the open and explained to Hans, his phobia vanished, supporting psychodynamic theory.

Key Strengths and Weaknesses of Freud (1909)

• Strength — Rich Qualitative Data: The case study method provided detailed, in-depth insights into the thoughts, dreams, and development of a young child over several years.
• Weakness — Low External Validity (Generalisability): The study looked at only one unique child living in a middle-class family in early 20th-century Vienna. His experiences cannot be generalised to all children.
• Weakness — Researcher Bias & Leading Questions: Hans's father was a devoted follower of Freud, meaning he may have asked leading questions or interpreted Hans's words specifically to fit Freud's theories.

Quick Takeaway: Freud believed disorders like phobias come from unconscious childhood conflicts (Oedipus complex) that are displaced onto external objects (horses).

3. Contemporary Study: Baron-Cohen et al. (1997)

Background and Theory

Theory of Mind (ToM) is the cognitive ability to understand that other people have their own mental states—such as desires, beliefs, emotions, and intentions—which may differ from one's own. In simple terms, it is the ability to "mind-read" or see the world from someone else's perspective.

Previous research showed that children with autism struggle with basic Theory of Mind tasks. However, high-functioning adults with Autism or Asperger Syndrome (AS) often pass simple ToM tests because of their normal intelligence. Baron-Cohen et al. wanted to create an advanced, subtle test to see if adults with Autism/AS still have an underlying deficit in Theory of Mind.

Aim of the Study

To test whether high-functioning adults with Autism or Asperger Syndrome lack an advanced Theory of Mind, specifically the ability to decode mental states from photographs of the human eye region.

Participants (The Three Groups)

A total of 76 participants took part, divided into three distinct groups:

• Group 1 (Autism/AS): 16 adults (13 male, 3 female) diagnosed with high-functioning Autism or Asperger Syndrome. All were of normal intelligence.
• Group 2 (Normal Control): 50 "normal" neurotypical adults (25 male, 25 female) drawn from the general population of Cambridge.
• Group 3 (Tourette's Syndrome Control): 10 adults (8 male, 2 female) diagnosed with Tourette's Syndrome, of normal intelligence.

Why include a Tourette’s Syndrome group?
This is a vital exam point! Both Autism and Tourette’s are neurodevelopmental conditions that begin in childhood, cause social disruption, and are associated with brain differences. Including Group 3 proved that any poor performance on the task was specific to Autism/AS, rather than simply having an organic brain condition or experiencing the social stigma of a disorder.

Materials and Procedure: The "Eyes Task"

Participants completed the experimental task along with two control/validation tasks:

1. The "Eyes Task":
• Participants were shown 25 black-and-white photographs of the eye region of human faces (male and female).
• Each photograph was displayed for exactly 3 seconds.
• It was a forced-choice task: participants had to choose between two opposite mental state words (for example: "attracted" vs "unconcerned", or "relaxed" vs "worried").

2. Validation / Control Tasks:
• Strange Stories Task: Participants in Group 1 were tested on Happe’s Strange Stories to confirm that the Eyes Task was genuinely measuring Theory of Mind.
• Gender Recognition Task & Basic Emotion Task: Participants identified the gender of the eyes or basic emotions (e.g., happy/sad) to ensure poor performance was not due to basic visual or perceptual problems.

Key Results

• Eyes Task Performance:
— Group 1 (Autism/AS) scored a mean of \(16.3\) out of \(25\).
— Group 2 (Normal Controls) scored a mean of \(20.3\) out of \(25\).
— Group 3 (Tourette's Syndrome) scored a mean of \(20.4\) out of \(25\).
Participants with Autism/AS scored significantly lower on the Eyes Task than both normal adults and adults with Tourette's Syndrome (\(p < 0.05\)).

• Gender Differences within the Normal Group:
— Normal females scored significantly higher (mean \(21.8\)) than normal males (mean \(18.8\)).
— Normal males still scored higher than the Autism/AS group (mean \(16.3\)).

• Control Tasks:
Group 1 performed normally on the gender recognition and basic emotion tasks, proving their difficulty was specifically about inferring complex mental states, not general vision.

Conclusion

High-functioning adults with Autism or Asperger Syndrome possess a subtle but significant deficit in advanced Theory of Mind. This social-cognitive deficit persists even when individuals have normal intelligence, suggesting that ToM is a distinct cognitive ability.

Quick Takeaway: Baron-Cohen et al. showed that individuals with Autism/AS have difficulty reading mental states from eyes, confirming a core deficit in Theory of Mind.

4. Comparing Classic and Contemporary Studies

Let's look at how both core studies fit under the theme Understanding Disorders:

• Nature of Disorders:
— Freud viewed disorders (phobias) as psychological and emotional, caused by unresolved childhood conflicts in the unconscious mind.
— Baron-Cohen et al. viewed disorders (Autism/AS) as cognitive and neurodevelopmental, caused by an inability to process social information (Theory of Mind).

• Research Methods:
— Freud used an idiographic, longitudinal case study collecting qualitative, subjective data from observations and letters.
— Baron-Cohen et al. used a nomothetic, quasi-experiment collecting quantitative, objective data from standardised testing.

• Treatment / Application:
— Freud: Disorders can be cured by uncovering unconscious material through psychoanalysis.
— Baron-Cohen et al.: Provides a diagnostic tool and identifies specific social-cognitive areas where individuals with Autism/AS may need targeted support.

5. Common Pitfalls & Examiner Warnings

1. Do NOT confuse 1997 with 2001!
In the OCR H167 specification, you are studying the 1997 study.
• 1997 Study (Correct): 25 pairs of eyes, forced choice between 2 mental state options.
• 2001 Revised Study (Incorrect): 36 pairs of eyes, 4 options. Make sure you refer to the 1997 version in your exam answers!

2. Freud's actual role:
Do not state that Freud carried out daily therapy sessions with Little Hans. Hans's father gathered the observations and conducted discussions; Freud acted as a supervising consultant and met Hans only once.

3. Forgetting the purpose of the Tourette's group:
Always explain that the Tourette's group acted as a control for having a childhood-onset neurodevelopmental disorder. They proved that low ToM scores are specific to Autism/AS and not just a result of general brain dysfunction or social stigma.

4. Generalisability of Freud:
Never claim Freud’s findings prove that all boys experience the Oedipus complex. It is a single case study of one Viennese boy, meaning the external validity is extremely low.

6. Chapter Summary Checklist

Before moving on to the next chapter, check that you can confidently answer the following:
• Can you explain the Oedipus complex, castration anxiety, and displacement in Little Hans's horse phobia?
• Can you outline the giraffe dream and the plumber fantasy?
• Can you describe the three participant groups in Baron-Cohen et al. (1997) and explain why the Tourette's group was used?
• Can you state the key numbers for the Eyes Task (25 photos, 3 seconds, 2 choices, mean scores: Group 1 = \(16.3\), Group 2 = \(20.3\), Group 3 = \(20.4\))?
• Can you evaluate both studies in terms of research methods, data types, and generalisability?