Introduction to Research Methods: Self-Report and Sampling
Welcome to one of the most important parts of your Social Psychology journey! While theories like Agency Theory explain why people obey, Research Methods are the tools psychologists use to prove those theories are correct. In this chapter, we focus on self-report (asking people what they think) and sampling (choosing who to ask).
Don't worry if these terms seem technical at first. Think of research methods as the "recipe" for a study. If the recipe is good, the results are tasty and reliable!
1. Self-Report Methods: Questionnaires and Interviews
A self-report is any method that involves asking a participant about their feelings, attitudes, or beliefs. In Social Psychology, we often use these to measure things like prejudice or why someone chose to obey an authority figure.
Questionnaires
Questionnaires are sets of written questions. They can be given in person, online, or via post.
Open Questions: These allow participants to answer in their own words (e.g., "Describe how you felt when the experimenter gave you an order").
Pros: They provide qualitative data (rich in detail).
Cons: They are harder to analyze and compare.
Closed Questions: These provide a fixed set of responses (e.g., "Yes/No" or "Check the box").
Ranked Scale Questions: A type of closed question where participants rate something on a scale (e.g., "On a scale of 1 to 5, how much do you agree with this statement?").
Pros: They provide quantitative data (numbers) which is easy to put into a bar chart.
Cons: They lack detail—you don't know why someone picked a "4" instead of a "5".
Interviews
Interviews are "face-to-face" (or over the phone) conversations. There are three main types you need to know:
1. Structured Interviews: The interviewer has a fixed list of questions and does not deviate from them. It’s like a questionnaire read aloud.
2. Unstructured Interviews: These are like a free-flowing conversation. There may be a topic, but the questions develop based on what the participant says.
3. Semi-structured Interviews: The "middle ground." There are some set questions, but the interviewer can ask follow-up questions to dig deeper.
Researcher Effects
Sometimes, the person asking the questions can accidentally influence the answer. This is called a researcher effect. For example, if an interviewer looks very stern while asking about obedience, the participant might lie to look like a better person. This reduces the validity (accuracy) of the results.
Quick Review: Questionnaires are great for large groups; interviews are great for deep detail. Watch out for researcher effects!
2. Sampling Techniques: Choosing Your Participants
You can't study everyone in the world! A sample is a smaller group chosen from the target population (the group you are interested in). Here are the four types you need for your exam:
Volunteer Sampling: You put up a poster or an ad, and people come to you.
Analogy: Putting a "Help Wanted" sign in a window.
Pros: Ethical (people want to be there).
Cons: You might only get "eager" people, which isn't representative of everyone.
Opportunity Sampling: You simply ask whoever is available at the time.
Analogy: Stopping people in a hallway to ask a question.
Pros: Fast and cheap.
Cons: Very biased; you only get people who happen to be in that specific place at that time.
Random Sampling: Every person in the target population has an equal chance of being picked (e.g., pulling names out of a hat).
Pros: Usually very fair and reduces researcher bias.
Cons: Can be very difficult and time-consuming to organize.
Stratified Sampling: This is the "mathematical" way. You identify the subgroups in a population (e.g., \( 60\% \) female, \( 40\% \) male) and make sure your sample has the exact same proportions.
Pros: Most representative; the results are highly generalisable.
Cons: Extremely complex to calculate and carry out.
Key Takeaway: Stratified is the most accurate, but Opportunity is the easiest. Most Social Psychology studies (like Milgram's) used Volunteer samples!
3. Formulating Hypotheses
Before starting research, a psychologist makes a prediction. In your practical investigation for Social Psychology, you must write an alternate hypothesis.
An alternate hypothesis predicts that there will be a significant difference or relationship between variables (e.g., "There will be a difference in obedience levels between males and females").
Note: You will also learn about "Null hypotheses" in Cognitive Psychology, which predict no difference!
4. Analyzing Data
Once you have your data from your questionnaire or interview, you have to make sense of it.
Quantitative Data (Numbers)
If you used ranked scales, you will use descriptive statistics:
Measures of Central Tendency: Mean, Median, and Mode.
Measures of Dispersion: The Range (highest minus lowest) and the Standard Deviation.
The formula for the sample-estimate standard deviation is: \( s = \sqrt{\frac{\sum(x - \bar{x})^2}{n - 1}} \)
Don't let the formula scare you! In the exam, you mainly need to know that a high standard deviation means the scores are spread out, while a low one means most people gave similar answers.
Qualitative Data (Words): Thematic Analysis
If you have interview transcripts or open questions, you use Thematic Analysis. This involves:
1. Familiarisation: Reading the answers over and over.
2. Generating Codes: Highlighting key words.
3. Searching for Themes: Grouping those codes into bigger patterns (e.g., if many people mention "fear of the experimenter," that becomes a theme).
5. Ethics and the BPS Code
In Social Psychology, we often study sensitive topics. The BPS Code of Ethics and Conduct (2009) provides the rules we must follow:
1. Respect: Keeping data confidential and getting informed consent.
2. Competence: The researcher must be qualified.
3. Responsibility: Protecting participants from harm (distress or anxiety).
4. Integrity: Being honest and avoiding deception where possible.
Risk Management: Researchers must identify potential risks before the study starts and have a plan to keep participants safe.
6. Your Practical Investigation
As part of Topic 1, you are required to design and conduct a questionnaire-based exercise. It should gather both qualitative and quantitative data to look for a difference (for example, comparing attitudes toward authority between two groups). While you don't hand in a write-up for marks, the skills you learned while doing it—like how you chose your sample or how you avoided researcher effects—are 100% examinable!
Common Mistake to Avoid: When asked to evaluate a study, don't just say "it was unethical." Explain why using the BPS terms, like "it failed to protect participants from psychological harm."
Cross-reference: For more on how these methods were used in actual research, see the chapter "Prescribed studies: social psychology" (e.g., Burger, 2009).