Prescribed studies: learning theories and development

Psychology (YPS01) · Pearson Edexcel International A Level · 5 min read · Updated: Sep 7, 2026

Introduction to Prescribed Studies

In this chapter, we look at how the theories of learning—like Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning, and Social Learning Theory—are actually tested in the real world. We will look at four key studies that show how we learn fears, how we can unlearn them, and how the media we consume (like video games) affects how we treat others. These studies are the "evidence" for the theories you have already learned!

1. The Classic Study: Watson and Rayner (1920) – Little Albert

This is one of the most famous (and controversial) studies in psychology. It aimed to show that Classical Conditioning could be used to create a phobia in a human being.

The Aim

To see if a fear response could be conditioned into an 11-month-old infant (Little Albert) and to see if that fear would spread to other similar objects.

The Procedure

1. Baseline testing: Albert was shown a white rat, a rabbit, a dog, and some cotton wool. He showed no fear (they were Neutral Stimuli).
2. The Conditioning: When Albert reached out to touch the White Rat (NS), the researchers struck a steel bar with a hammer behind his head. This made a loud noise (Unconditioned Stimulus), which made Albert cry (Unconditioned Response).
3. Repetition: They did this several times over several weeks.

The Results

Eventually, just seeing the White Rat alone made Albert cry and crawl away. The rat had become a Conditioned Stimulus (CS) and his fear was a Conditioned Response (CR).

Stimulus Generalisation: Albert also became afraid of other white, fluffy things, like a rabbit, a fur coat, and even a Santa Claus mask!

Key Takeaway

Phobias are not always something we are born with; Watson and Rayner proved they can be learned through association.

Quick Review: Remember the formula! \( NS + UCS \implies UCR \). After learning: \( CS \implies CR \).

2. Contemporary Study: Capafóns et al. (1998) – Fear of Flying

While Watson and Rayner showed how to create a fear, Capafóns and his team wanted to see if they could use Systematic Desensitisation to remove a fear—specifically, the fear of flying (aerophobia).

The Aim

To test the effectiveness of Systematic Desensitisation as a treatment for the fear of flying.

The Procedure

1. Participants: 41 people with a fear of flying were recruited. 20 were put in a treatment group and 21 were put in a waiting list control group (who didn't get the therapy yet).
2. Measurement: They used several scales to measure fear and even physiological measures like heart rate and palm sweating.
3. Treatment: The treatment group had 12 to 15 sessions of Systematic Desensitisation, using relaxation techniques and imagined "flights."

The Results

The treatment group showed a significant reduction in fear and lower physiological arousal (like slower heart rates) when thinking about flying. In contrast, the waiting list group showed no improvement. However, it wasn’t 100% successful for everyone; two people in the treatment group showed no change.

Key Takeaway

Systematic Desensitisation is a highly effective, scientifically proven way to treat phobias, but individual differences mean it might not work for everyone.

3. Choice Study (Option A): Prot et al. (2014) – Prosocial Media

This study looks at the positive side of Social Learning Theory. If we see people helping each other on TV or in games, do we become more helpful ourselves?

The Aim

To investigate the long-term relationship between prosocial media (media that shows helping and cooperation), empathy, and prosocial behavior.

The Procedure

This was a longitudinal study (following people over time) across three different countries (Singapore, Japan, and the USA). They measured how much prosocial media children and adolescents consumed and then measured their levels of empathy (understanding others' feelings) and how much they actually helped others later on.

The Results

The study found a "Media-to-Behavior" pathway:
Prosocial Media Exposure \(\implies\) Increased Empathy \(\implies\) Increased Prosocial Behavior.

This effect was found across all three cultures, suggesting it is a universal way that humans learn behavior from media.

Key Takeaway

What we watch matters! Media can "train" us to be kinder and more empathetic people through observation and imitation.

4. Choice Study (Option B): Bastian et al. (2011) – Cyber-dehumanization

This study looks at a more modern concern: do violent video games make us see other people as less than human?

The Aim

To see if playing violent video games leads to dehumanization (viewing oneself or others as lacking human qualities like feelings or logic).

The Procedure

1. The Task: Participants played either a violent video game (Mortal Kombat) or a non-violent game (Top Spin Tennis) for 15 minutes against another person.
2. The Measurement: Participants then rated themselves and their opponents on "humanity" scales (e.g., how much they felt they had "refined emotions" or "mechanical" traits).

The Results

Those who played the violent game rated both themselves and their opponents as significantly less "human" than those who played the tennis game. This is called cyber-dehumanization.

Key Takeaway

Violent media might not just make people aggressive; it might actually change the way we perceive human beings, making us see them more like "objects" or "robots."

Common Mistakes to Avoid

• Confusing the stimuli in Little Albert: Don't forget that the Rat was neutral at the start. The Loud Noise is what caused the fear naturally (UCS).
• Mixing up the Choice Studies: Remember that Prot (2014) is about prosocial/helpful behavior, while Bastian (2011) is about violent games and dehumanization.
• Ignoring the Control Group: In the Capafóns study, always mention the waiting list group. They are vital because they prove that the fear didn't just go away on its own over time—it was the therapy that did it!

Summary Table for Revision

Study: Watson & Rayner (1920)
Theory: Classical Conditioning
Main Finding: Phobias can be learned via association and generalized to similar objects.

Study: Capafóns et al. (1998)
Theory: Systematic Desensitisation (Learning Theory Therapy)
Main Finding: SD significantly reduces the fear of flying compared to no treatment.

Study: Prot et al. (2014)
Theory: Social Learning Theory (Prosocial)
Main Finding: Helpful media leads to more empathy and helpful behavior over time.

Study: Bastian et al. (2011)
Theory: Social Learning Theory (Aggression)
Main Finding: Violent games make us see ourselves and others as less human.

Quick check

Can you answer these now?

Open each question to check the key ideas from this chapter.

What was the primary aim of Watson and Rayner’s (1920) Little Albert study?

The aim was to determine if a fear response could be classically conditioned into an infant and whether that fear would generalize to other similar objects.

In the Little Albert study, what were the Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) and the Conditioned Stimulus (CS)?

The Unconditioned Stimulus was the loud noise (hitting a steel bar), and the Conditioned Stimulus was the white rat.

What is stimulus generalization, and how was it observed in Little Albert?

Stimulus generalization is when a conditioned response is triggered by stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus; Albert showed fear toward other white, fluffy objects like a rabbit and a Santa mask.

What was the purpose of the waiting list control group in the Capafóns et al. (1998) study?

The control group provided a baseline to prove that the reduction in fear was due to the Systematic Desensitisation therapy and not just the passage of time.

How effective was Systematic Desensitisation in treating the fear of flying according to Capafóns et al. (1998)?

It was highly effective for the majority, showing a significant reduction in fear and physiological arousal, though it did not work for every single participant.

What pathway did Prot et al. (2014) identify between prosocial media and behavior?

The pathway is: Prosocial Media Exposure leads to Increased Empathy, which in turn leads to Increased Prosocial Behavior.

What is 'cyber-dehumanization' as defined in the study by Bastian et al. (2011)?

Cyber-dehumanization is the phenomenon where playing violent video games causes players to perceive themselves and their opponents as having fewer human qualities.

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