Welcome to Moral Philosophy!
Hello! Welcome to one of the most exciting parts of your Philosophy course. In this chapter, we are looking at Normative Ethical Theories. "Normative" sounds like a big word, but it just comes from the word "norm" or "standard." Basically, these theories try to answer one big question: "How should I live my life and how should I decide what is right or wrong?"
We are going to look at three heavyweights of the philosophy world: Utilitarianism, Kantian Ethics, and Aristotelian Virtue Ethics. Don't worry if it seems like a lot to take in at first—we’ll break it down step-by-step!
1. Utilitarianism: Maximising Happiness
Utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory. This means it doesn't care about your intentions; it only cares about the results of your actions. If the result is more happiness, the action was good!
Jeremy Bentham and Quantity
Bentham believed in Quantitative Hedonistic Utilitarianism. He argued that we are ruled by two masters: Pleasure and Pain. His goal was the "greatest happiness for the greatest number."
To help us calculate happiness, he created the Utility Calculus (also known as the Hedonic Calculus). Imagine a "happiness scale" with seven criteria (like how long the pleasure lasts or how certain it is).
The simple formula: \( \text{Utility} = \text{Total Pleasure} - \text{Total Pain} \)
John Stuart Mill and Quality
Mill thought Bentham's view was a bit too simple (he called it a "pig philosophy" because it treated human pleasure the same as animal pleasure). Mill introduced Higher and Lower Pleasures:
- Higher Pleasures: Things that use our mind (reading poetry, philosophy, art).
- Lower Pleasures: Physical things (eating, sleeping, sex).
Mill famously said: "It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied."
Act vs. Rule Utilitarianism
Act Utilitarianism: You should calculate the consequences of every single individual act. (Example: Is it okay to lie right now to save feelings?)
Rule Utilitarianism: You should follow rules that, if everyone followed them, would lead to the most happiness. (Example: "Don't lie" is a good rule because society would collapse if everyone lied.)
Quick Review: Utilitarianism Problems
The Experience Machine: Robert Nozick asks: If you could plug into a machine that gave you nothing but pleasure forever, would you? Most say no, which suggests pleasure isn't the only good.
Tyranny of the Majority: If 90% of people would be happy seeing 10% suffer, a strict Utilitarian might have to say that's "good." This feels unfair and ignores individual rights.
Key Takeaway: Utilitarianism says "Right = Most Happiness." Bentham counts the amount, Mill looks at the quality.
2. Kantian Deontological Ethics: Doing Your Duty
Immanuel Kant was the opposite of a Utilitarian. He believed morality is about Duty, not happiness or consequences. This is a Deontological theory (from the Greek 'deon' meaning duty).
The Good Will and Duty
Kant argued that the only thing that is "good without qualification" is a Good Will. This means doing the right thing simply because it is the right thing to do.
He makes a distinction between:
- Acting in accordance with duty: Doing the right thing for the wrong reason (e.g., a shopkeeper being honest just to keep customers).
- Acting out of duty: Doing the right thing because it's your moral obligation (e.g., being honest because lying is wrong). Only this has moral worth!
The Categorical Imperative
Kant gives us two types of "orders" (imperatives):
- Hypothetical Imperative: "If you want X, do Y." (e.g., "If you want to stay fit, go for a run"). These aren't moral.
- Categorical Imperative: "Do Y." (e.g., "Don't steal"). These are moral laws that apply to everyone, always.
Formulation 1: Universal Law. Ask yourself: "Would I want it to be a law that everyone does this?" If not, don't do it.
Memory Aid: Think of the "What if everyone did that?" lecture you might have got from a teacher!
Formulation 2: Humanity. Never treat people merely as a "means to an end" (using them). Always treat them as "ends in themselves" (respecting their value as humans).
Common Mistakes to Avoid
Don't confuse Kant's "Universal Law" with "What will happen if everyone does this?" Kant doesn't care about the results (that's Utilitarianism). He cares if the idea is logically consistent. If you lie, you are destroying the very idea of "truth," which makes the lie impossible. This is a Contradiction in Conception.
Key Takeaway: For Kant, morality is about following absolute rules discovered by reason, regardless of how we feel.
3. Aristotelian Virtue Ethics: Becoming a Good Person
Aristotle doesn't look at "rules" or "consequences." Instead, he asks: "What kind of person should I be?"
Eudaimonia: The Goal of Life
The "final end" for humans is Eudaimonia. This is often translated as "happiness," but it really means "flourishing." Think of a plant flourishing in the right soil; Eudaimonia is a human living their best, most rational life.
The Function Argument (Ergon)
Aristotle says everything has a function (ergon). A knife's function is to cut. To be a "good" knife, it needs the "virtue" (arete) of sharpness.
What is the human function? Reasoning. So, a good human is one who reasons well and lives a life of virtue.
The Doctrine of the Mean
How do we know what a virtue is? It's the "Golden Mean" between two extremes (vices):
- Deficiency: Too little (e.g., Cowardice)
- Virtue: The perfect amount (e.g., Courage)
- Excess: Too much (e.g., Rashness/Recklessness)
Analogy: It's like Goldilocks—the virtue is the one that is "just right."
How to become virtuous?
You aren't born virtuous. You become virtuous through Habit (habituation).
Mnemonic: "Fake it until you make it." By doing brave things, you eventually become a brave person. Aristotle calls this the Skill Analogy—learning to be good is like learning to play the piano; you need practice!
Quick Review: Virtue Ethics Issues
- Guidance: It doesn't give clear "rules" for what to do in a crisis.
- Circularity: A virtuous act is what a virtuous person does... but a virtuous person is someone who does virtuous acts! (Where do we start?)
Key Takeaway: Virtue Ethics is about character. Practice being good until it becomes a habit, aiming for the "mean" between extremes.
Summary Comparison Table
Theory: Utilitarianism
Focus: Consequences (Happiness)
Key Slogan: "Greatest happiness for the greatest number."
Theory: Kantian Ethics
Focus: Duty and Reason
Key Slogan: "Do your duty, though the heavens fall."
Theory: Virtue Ethics
Focus: Character (Who am I?)
Key Slogan: "Aim for the Golden Mean to flourish."
Don't worry if this seems tricky at first! Try applying these theories to a real-life situation, like whether or not to tell a "white lie" to a friend. You'll see how differently each philosopher thinks!