Welcome to the Metaphysics of God!

Before we can dive into the big question of whether God exists, we first need to figure out exactly what we mean when we use the word "God." In this chapter, we are looking at the concept of God—specifically the "God of the Philosophers" (often associated with the Abrahamic traditions like Christianity, Judaism, and Islam).

We’ll explore what God is supposed to be like (His attributes), whether such a being can actually exist without contradicting Himself, and how He relates to time. Don’t worry if some of this feels a bit "brain-stretching" at first—philosophy is all about thinking through these tricky puzzles step-by-step!


1. The Divine Attributes: What is God?

In AQA Philosophy, we focus on three "omni-" attributes. Think of these as the "Big Three" characteristics that define a maximally great being.

Omnipotence (All-Powerful)

This means God has perfect power. However, philosophers disagree on what "all-powerful" really means. Example: Can God do the logically impossible, like making a square circle?
St. Thomas Aquinas argued that God can do anything that is logically possible. He claimed that a "square circle" isn't actually a "thing" at all—it's a contradiction in terms. Therefore, God not being able to make one isn't a lack of power; it's just that "nonsense remains nonsense even when we talk about God."

Omniscience (All-Knowing)

This means God knows all true propositions. If something is true, God knows it. This includes knowledge of the past, present, and (contentiously) the future.
Quick Review: If God is omniscient, does He know what you’re going to have for breakfast tomorrow? We’ll look at the problems this causes for free will later on!

Omnibenevolence (Supremely Good)

This means God is perfectly good. In philosophy, this is often understood in two ways: 1. Personal Goodness: God is morally perfect and always acts out of love. 2. Metaphysical Goodness: God is the source of all goodness and has no "flaws" or "defects."

Memory Aid: The "Three O's" To remember the attributes, just think: Power, Knowledge, Love. Omnipotent = All-Power Omniscient = All-Knowledge (Science/Scientia = Knowledge) Omnibenevolent = All-Good (Bene = Good/Well)

Key Takeaway: The traditional concept of God is a perfect being who possesses all three of these attributes to the highest possible degree.


2. God and Time: Eternal vs. Everlasting

How does a perfect being experience time? There are two main views you need to know:

God is Eternal (Timeless)

This is the view that God exists outside of time. He has no beginning and no end, but He doesn't "wait" for things to happen. To an eternal God, all of history (past, present, and future) is present to Him at once.
Analogy: Imagine you are looking at a map of a road. You can see the start, the middle, and the end all at once. A person on the road (us) can only see what’s right in front of them.

God is Everlasting (Within Time)

Some modern philosophers, like Nicholas Wolterstorff, argue that for God to be personal and interact with the world (like answering a prayer), He must exist within time. In this view, God has no beginning or end, but He moves through time just like we do—He exists "now," He existed "yesterday," and He will exist "tomorrow."

Did you know? The "Eternal" view was very popular in the Middle Ages because it made God seem more "perfect" and unchanging. The "Everlasting" view is more popular with some modern thinkers who want God to feel more "personal."

Key Takeaway: Eternal = Outside time (the map). Everlasting = Inside time (on the road).


3. Can God Exist? (The Arguments for Incoherence)

Some philosophers argue that the very concept of God is messy or contradictory (incoherent). They use three famous puzzles to try and prove this.

The Paradox of the Stone

This challenges omnipotence. The Question: Can God create a stone so heavy that even He cannot lift it?
- If He can create it, there is something He cannot do (lift the stone). - If He cannot create it, there is something He cannot do (create the stone). - Either way, it seems God is not omnipotent.

How to solve it: George Mavrodes argued that a "stone an omnipotent being cannot lift" is a logical contradiction (like a square circle). Therefore, it’s not a real task, and God’s failure to do it doesn't limit His power.

The Euthyphro Dilemma

This challenges omnibenevolence. It asks: "Is something good because God commands it, or does God command it because it is good?"
1. If things are good just because God says so, then morality is arbitrary. If God commanded us to be cruel, cruelty would be "good." 2. If God commands things because they are already good, then God is not the ultimate standard. There is a law of "goodness" higher than God that He has to follow.

Common Mistake to Avoid: Don't just say "God is good so it's fine." You need to explain that the dilemma forces us to choose between God's power (He makes the rules) and God's goodness (He follows the rules).

Omniscience vs. Free Will

This challenges the compatibility of God’s attributes with our lives. 1. If God is omniscient, He knows everything I will do in the future. 2. If God knows I will eat a sandwich at 12:00 PM tomorrow, then it is necessarily true that I will eat that sandwich. 3. If it is necessary, I cannot do otherwise. 4. If I cannot do otherwise, I am not free.

How to solve it: Some philosophers (like Boethius) argue that because God is eternal (outside time), He doesn't "foresee" your choice; He sees it as you are doing it. He sees your "future" in a "simultaneous present." Therefore, He knows what you do, but His knowing doesn't force you to do it.

Key Takeaway: These puzzles suggest that defining God as "Perfect" leads to logical "crashes." Philosophers try to fix these by refining their definitions of power, goodness, and time.


Quick Summary Checklist

  • Do I know the 3 "Omni-" attributes? (Omnipotence, Omniscience, Omnibenevolence)
  • Can I explain the difference between Eternal and Everlasting?
  • Do I understand the Paradox of the Stone (and the "logical contradiction" response)?
  • Can I explain the two "horns" of the Euthyphro Dilemma?
  • Do I understand why God's foreknowledge might threaten human free will?

Don't worry if this seems tricky! Philosophy is all about slow, careful thinking. If you can explain these three puzzles, you've mastered the core of this chapter!