Welcome to the Study of Gender!
Hello! Welcome to your study notes for the Gender chapter of AQA Psychology 7182. This topic is part of your "Issues and Options" paper. We are going to explore why we feel masculine or feminine, whether it’s down to our biology (nature) or our upbringing (nurture), and what happens when things don't follow the typical path. Don’t worry if some of the theories seem a bit strange at first—we’ll break them down into easy, bite-sized pieces!
1. Sex and Gender: What’s the Difference?
In everyday conversation, we often use these words to mean the same thing, but in Psychology, they are very different!
Sex refers to your biological status. It is determined by your chromosomes (like \(XX\) or \(XY\)), your hormones, and your anatomy. It is usually seen as fixed and cannot be changed by social factors.
Gender refers to your psychological status. It is the internal sense of being male or female. This includes sex-role stereotypes, which are the shared expectations a society has about how men and women should behave. For example, the idea that "men shouldn't cry" is a sex-role stereotype.
Androgyny and the BSRI
Androgyny comes from the Greek words 'andro' (male) and 'gyn' (female). It refers to a person who shows a high balance of both masculine and feminine traits. For example, someone who is very competitive (traditionally masculine) but also very nurturing (traditionally feminine).
Sandra Bem developed the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) to measure this. It is a questionnaire with 60 traits (20 masculine, 20 feminine, and 20 neutral). Participants rate themselves on a scale of 1 to 7 for each trait.
Did you know? Bem argued that androgynous people are actually psychologically healthier because they are more flexible and can deal with a wider range of situations!
Quick Review Box:
• Sex = Biological (Nature).
• Gender = Psychological/Social (Nurture).
• Androgyny = A high balance of both masculine and feminine traits.
Key Takeaway: While sex is biological, gender is a social and psychological identity that can be measured using tools like the BSRI.
2. Biological Explanations: Chromosomes and Hormones
The biological approach says our gender identity is caused by our physical makeup.
Chromosomes
We have 23 pairs of chromosomes. The 23rd pair determines our biological sex:
• Female: \(XX\)
• Male: \(XY\)
The Y chromosome contains a gene called the SRY gene, which triggers the production of androgens (male hormones) in the womb.
Hormones
Hormones act as chemical messengers. The main ones involved in gender are:
• Testosterone: Higher in males. Linked to aggression and dominance.
• Oestrogen: Higher in females. Determines female sexual characteristics and the menstrual cycle. It is also linked to emotionality.
• Oxytocin: Often called the "love hormone." It is produced in large amounts during childbirth and breastfeeding, promoting bonding. It's also linked to lower levels of cortisol (stress hormone).
Atypical Sex Chromosome Patterns
Sometimes, people are born with an unusual number of chromosomes. Studying them helps us see what traits are biological.
1. Klinefelter’s Syndrome (\(XXY\)): Affects biological males.
Physical traits: Less facial hair, some breast development, long limbs.
Psychological traits: Poor language skills, shy, passive temperament.
2. Turner’s Syndrome (\(XO\)): Affects biological females (they are missing one X).
Physical traits: Short stature, webbed neck, no ovaries.
Psychological traits: High reading ability, but low spatial/mathematical skills; socially immature.
Memory Aid:
Think Turner's = Total (one is missing from the total).
Think Klinefelter's = Kickstart (an extra X is kicked in there).
Key Takeaway: Biology plays a massive role in gender. By looking at "atypical" cases, we can see how much our genes influence our behavior.
3. Cognitive Explanations: How We Think About Gender
Cognitive psychologists believe our gender development happens because our thinking changes as we get older.
Kohlberg’s Theory
Lawrence Kohlberg argued that children go through three stages of understanding gender, linked to their brain development:
1. Gender Identity (Age 2–3): The child can label themselves as a boy or girl, but they think gender can change (e.g., "If I put on a dress, I’m a girl").
2. Gender Stability (Age 4): They realize they will stay the same gender forever, but they still get confused by external changes (e.g., a man with long hair might be called a woman).
3. Gender Constancy (Age 6–7): The "Eureka!" moment. They realize gender is permanent regardless of clothes or hair. This is when they start looking for gender-appropriate role models to copy.
Gender Schema Theory
Martin and Halverson agree that children are active in their development, but they think this starts much earlier (as soon as a child has a basic gender identity at age 2 or 3).
A schema is a "mental package" of information. Children create:
• In-group schemas: Information about their own gender ("I am a girl, so I like dolls").
• Out-group schemas: Information about the other gender, which they mostly ignore.
Common Mistake to Avoid: Don't confuse these two! Kohlberg says children need Constancy (age 7) before they copy others. Schema theory says children start searching for info as soon as they have Identity (age 3).
Key Takeaway: Cognitive theories focus on how children’s understanding of gender becomes more sophisticated as they grow.
4. Psychodynamic Explanation: Freud’s View
Don't worry if this seems tricky at first—Freud had some very unique ideas! He believed gender develops during the Phallic Stage (ages 3 to 6).
For Boys: The Oedipus Complex
The boy loves his mother and sees his father as a rival. He fears his father will find out and punish him (Castration Anxiety). To resolve this, he gives up his love for his mother and identifies with his father.
For Girls: The Electra Complex
The girl realizes she doesn't have a penis and blames her mother (Penis Envy). She eventually realizes she can't have one, so she substitutes this desire with a desire for a baby. She identifies with her mother to resolve the conflict.
The Result: Identification and Internalisation
In both cases, the child takes on the values and gender identity of the same-sex parent. This is called Internalisation.
Key Takeaway: Freud believed gender was the result of resolving unconscious emotional conflicts with our parents.
5. Social Learning Theory (SLT)
This theory says we learn gender from our environment (Nurture). It happens through:
• Direct Reinforcement: Children are praised for "gender-appropriate" behavior ("What a brave boy!") and punished for others ("Boys don't play with dolls").
• Vicarious Reinforcement: If a girl sees her sister get praised for being "pretty" or "helpful," she is likely to copy that behavior to get the same reward.
• Identification: Children choose Role Models who are similar to them, attractive, or high status.
• Modelling: The actual act of copying the behavior.
The Influence of Culture and Media
Culture: If gender were purely biological, it would be the same everywhere. However, some cultures have "third genders" or different expectations for men and women, suggesting gender is at least partly learned.
Media: TV and adverts often show rigid stereotypes (men as independent/ambitious, women as nurturing/dependent). This reinforces what children think is "normal."
Key Takeaway: SLT emphasizes that we learn to be male or female by watching and copying the people around us.
6. Atypical Gender Development: Gender Dysphoria
Gender Dysphoria is a condition where a person experiences a mismatch between their biological sex and their gender identity. This can cause significant distress.
Biological Explanations
• Brain Sex Theory: Suggests the structure of specific brain areas (like the BSTc in the thalamus) matches the person's identified gender rather than their biological sex.
• Genetic Factors: Twin studies show a higher concordance rate for gender dysphoria in identical (\(MZ\)) twins than non-identical (\(DZ\)) twins, suggesting a genetic link.
Social/Psychological Explanations
• Psychoanalytic Theory: Some suggest it's caused by extreme separation anxiety or an overly close relationship with the mother (for males), leading the child to "become" the mother to ease the anxiety.
• Cognitive Explanation: Suggests an extension of schema theory. If a child’s initial gender schema is very flexible or "muddled," it may lead to a non-typical gender identity.
Quick Review Box:
• Gender Dysphoria = Mismatch between sex and gender.
• Nature side = Brain structures (BSTc) and Genes.
• Nurture side = Childhood trauma or complex schemas.
Key Takeaway: Gender Dysphoria is complex and likely involves a combination of biological predispositions and social experiences.