Welcome to Psychopathology!
In this chapter, we are going to explore what it means when behavior is "abnormal." We will look at how psychologists define mental disorders, what the symptoms look like, and how different "approaches" (like the Biological or Cognitive approach) explain and treat them. Psychopathology is simply the scientific study of psychological disorders.
Don’t worry if some of these terms seem like a mouthful at first! We will break them down step-by-step using everyday examples.
1. Defining Abnormality
How do we decide if someone’s behavior is "abnormal"? Psychologists use four main definitions. Each has its strengths and weaknesses.
A. Statistical Infrequency
This definition says that any behavior that is mathematically rare is "abnormal." If we plotted everyone's behavior on a graph, most people would be in the middle. The people at the very ends (the "tails") are considered abnormal.
Example: The average IQ is 100. Only 2% of people have an IQ below 70. Because this is rare, it is statistically abnormal and used to help diagnose Intellectual Disability Disorder.
Quick Review: Think of a "Normal Distribution" curve. If you are far away from the middle, you are statistically infrequent.
B. Deviation from Social Norms
Every society has unwritten rules about how to behave (social norms). If you break these rules, your behavior is seen as abnormal. This depends on the context (where you are) and culture.
Example: Wearing a bikini to the beach is normal. Wearing a bikini to a funeral is a deviation from social norms.
C. Failure to Function Adequately (FFA)
This definition focuses on whether a person can cope with everyday life. Can they keep a job? Can they look after their hygiene? Do they have healthy relationships?
Key Signs of FFA:
• Severe personal distress.
• Behavior that becomes dangerous to themselves or others.
• Irrational behavior.
D. Deviation from Ideal Mental Health
Instead of looking at what is "wrong," this looks at what is "right." Jahoda (1958) created a list of criteria for perfect mental health. If you are missing these, you might be abnormal.
Mnemonic to remember Jahoda’s criteria (PRAISE):
• Positive attitude towards self (Self-esteem).
• Resistance to stress.
• Accurate perception of reality.
• Independence (Autonomy).
• Self-actualisation (Reaching your potential).
• Environmental mastery (Dealing with new situations).
Key Takeaway: There is no single perfect definition. Psychologists often use a mix of these to understand a patient.
2. Characteristics of Disorders
The syllabus requires you to know the Behavioural (actions), Emotional (feelings), and Cognitive (thoughts) characteristics of three disorders.
Phobias (Anxiety Disorders)
• Behavioural: Panic (crying, screaming), avoidance (staying away from the object), or endurance (freezing in fear).
• Emotional: Excessive and unreasonable fear and anxiety.
• Cognitive: Selective attention (can’t look away from the spider) and irrational beliefs.
Depression (Mood Disorders)
• Behavioural: Changes in activity levels (too much sleep or no energy), and disruption to eating/sleeping.
• Emotional: Lowered mood (feeling "empty"), anger, and lowered self-esteem.
• Cognitive: Poor concentration, dwelling on the negative, and absolutist thinking (seeing things as "all bad").
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
• Behavioural: Compulsions (repetitive actions like hand washing) used to reduce anxiety.
• Emotional: Extreme anxiety, guilt, and disgust.
• Cognitive: Obsessions (recurring, intrusive thoughts) and insight into their own excessive anxiety.
Top Tip: In an exam, if a question asks for "characteristics," make sure you label them as Behavioural, Emotional, or Cognitive to get full marks!
3. The Behavioural Approach to Phobias
Behaviourists believe phobias are learned from our environment.
The Two-Process Model (Mowrer)
1. Acquisition (Starting the phobia): Learned through Classical Conditioning. If a neutral stimulus (e.g., a dog) is paired with a scary event (e.g., being bitten), the dog becomes a conditioned stimulus that triggers fear.
2. Maintenance (Keeping the phobia): Learned through Operant Conditioning. When we avoid the thing we fear, our anxiety goes down. This "reward" (negative reinforcement) makes us more likely to avoid it again, so the phobia never goes away.
Treating Phobias
1. Systematic Desensitisation (SD): A gradual process.
• Step 1: Anxiety Hierarchy. List situations from least to most scary (e.g., looking at a picture of a spider vs. holding one).
• Step 2: Relaxation. Learn breathing or meditation techniques.
• Step 3: Exposure. Work through the hierarchy while staying relaxed.
2. Flooding: Immediate exposure. The patient is thrown into the "deep end" (e.g., put in a room with spiders) until their anxiety peaks and then naturally drops because the body cannot stay in a state of panic forever.
Key Takeaway: SD is "slow and steady" while Flooding is "fast and intense." Both aim for extinction of the fear response.
4. The Cognitive Approach to Depression
This approach says depression is caused by faulty thinking.
Beck’s Negative Triad
Beck argued that depressed people have a "negative schema" (a mental framework) that makes them interpret the world negatively. They fall into a cycle of three types of negative thoughts:
• 1. Negative view of the Self ("I am a failure").
• 2. Negative view of the World ("Everything is against me").
• 3. Negative view of the Future ("It will never get better").
Ellis’s ABC Model
Ellis focused on irrational beliefs.
• A - Activating Event: Something happens (e.g., you fail a test).
• B - Belief: Your interpretation (e.g., "I am stupid").
• C - Consequence: The emotional/behavioral result (e.g., depression).
Treating Depression: CBT
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) is the most common treatment. The therapist and patient work together as "scientists" to test if the patient's negative thoughts are actually true.
• Challenging Irrational Thoughts: The therapist asks for evidence of the negative thought.
• Homework: Patients might be asked to record when people were nice to them to prove their "nobody likes me" thought is wrong.
Did you know? CBT is currently the "gold standard" for treating depression in the UK because it empowers the patient to help themselves!
5. The Biological Approach to OCD
This approach suggests OCD is caused by physical processes in the body: genes and brain structure.
Biological Explanations
• Genetic Explanations: OCD is polygenic (caused by many genes). Researchers look at candidate genes like the SERT gene (linked to serotonin) and the COMT gene (linked to dopamine).
• Neural Explanations:
- Neurotransmitters: Low levels of serotonin may prevent the brain from "turning off" worry signals.
- Brain Structure: The Orbitofrontal Cortex (OFC) (the "worry circuit") may be overactive in people with OCD, making them notice every tiny "error" or germ.
Treating OCD: Drug Therapy
The main treatment is SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors), like Prozac.
How they work:
1. Serotonin is released into the synapse (gap between neurons).
2. Normally, it is reabsorbed by the sending neuron.
3. SSRIs block this reabsorption.
4. This leaves more serotonin in the synapse to keep stimulating the receiving neuron, which improves mood and reduces the "worry" signals.
Common Mistake to Avoid: Don't say drugs "cure" OCD. They manage the symptoms so the person can function better, often alongside therapy.
Key Takeaway: The biological approach treats OCD as a physical illness that can be managed with medication to balance brain chemistry.
Quick Summary Checklist
• Can you name the 4 definitions of abnormality?
• Can you distinguish between a compulsion (behavior) and an obsession (thought) in OCD?
• Do you know the difference between Systematic Desensitisation and Flooding?
• Can you explain the three parts of Beck’s Negative Triad?
• Do you understand how SSRIs increase serotonin levels?
You’ve got this! Psychopathology is all about understanding the human experience when things get difficult. Keep reviewing these key terms and you'll be an expert in no time.