Ethics and religion

Welcome to Ethics and Religion!

In this chapter, we are exploring one of the most exciting parts of Philosophy: Ethics. Ethics isn't just about "being good"; it's the study of how we decide what is right and wrong. For AQA 7062, we look at how religious and non-religious ideas clash and combine to help people make big life decisions. Whether you are a straight-A student or find philosophy a bit "head-scratchy," these notes are designed to make these big ideas click!

1. Normative Ethical Theories

Normative ethics is the "how-to" guide for morality. It tries to give us rules or systems to follow. There are three main types you need to know:

Deontological: Natural Moral Law (NML)

Developed by Thomas Aquinas, this theory says that the universe has a natural order created by God. By using reason, humans can figure out their purpose (Telos).
Analogy: Think of NML like an instruction manual for a car. If you want the car to work perfectly, you follow the manual. Aquinas thought "following the manual" for humans meant following five Primary Precepts (like protecting life and living in an ordered society).

• The Principle of Double Effect: This is a "get out of jail free" card for tricky situations. It says if you do something good (like giving a patient pain relief) but it has a bad side effect you didn't intend (they die sooner), you aren't morally guilty.
• Proportionalism: A more modern twist. It suggests that while we should usually follow NML rules, sometimes there is a "proportionate reason" (a really big, justified reason) to break them.

Teleological: Situation Ethics (SE)

Joseph Fletcher argued that we should throw away fixed rules and focus on Agape (unconditional, selfless love).
Analogy: If NML is an instruction manual, Situation Ethics is like a GPS. It doesn't give you one fixed route forever; it recalculates the "most loving" path based on where you are right now.

Character-Based: Virtue Ethics (VE)

Aristotle didn't care about rules or results; he cared about the person. He believed we should develop "virtues" (good habits) like courage and kindness.
The Golden Mean: Virtue is the perfect middle ground between two extremes. For example, courage is the middle ground between being a coward and being reckless.

Quick Review: Theft and Lying
- NML: Usually says "No" (breaks the precept of an ordered society).
- SE: Might say "Yes" if it's the most loving thing to do (e.g., stealing bread to save a starving child).
- VE: Asks, "What would a virtuous person do?" Lying usually shows a lack of honesty, but "noble lies" might be allowed.

Key Takeaway: Deontology = Duty/Rules. Teleology = End goal/Love. Virtue Ethics = Your character.

2. Applying Ethics to Life and Death

The exam will ask you how these theories apply to specific modern issues. Don't worry if these seem complex; just apply the "rules" of the theory to the problem!

Human Life and Death

• Abortion & Euthanasia: Natural Moral Law is usually "Pro-Life" because of the precept "Preservation of Life." However, Situation Ethics might support these if they prevent the most suffering and show the most Agape.
• Capital Punishment: Aquinas (NML) actually supported it to protect society, but many modern NML thinkers disagree. Virtue Ethics would ask if killing a criminal is an act of "Justice" or "Revenge."
• Embryo Research & Designer Babies: NML often worries this "plays God" and interferes with nature. SE is more likely to support it if it leads to cures for diseases.

Non-Human Life and Death

• Intensive Farming & Animals as Food: NML sees animals as being here for human use, but Virtue Ethics might argue that being cruel to animals makes us a "cruel person," which is bad for our character.
• Blood Sports: Most ethical theories today struggle to justify this. SE would likely say hurting animals for "fun" is definitely not the most loving thing to do!

Did you know? "Xenotransplantation" is the fancy word for using animal organs (like a pig's heart) in humans. NML is generally okay with this because it saves human lives!

3. Meta-Ethics: What does "Right" even mean?

Meta-ethics is like looking under the hood of a car. We aren't asking "Is stealing wrong?" but "What does the word 'wrong' actually mean?"

• Divine Command Theory (DCT): "Right" simply means "What God commands." If God says it's good, it's good.
  Common Mistake: Don't confuse this with NML. DCT is "Because God said so"; NML is "Because I can see the logic in nature."
• Naturalism (Utilitarianism): Right and wrong are facts we can see in the world. Specifically, "Right" is whatever causes the most pleasure and "Wrong" is what causes pain.

  \( \text{Moral Fact} = \text{Maximum Happiness} \)

• Non-Naturalism (Intuitionism): G.E. Moore argued that "Good" is a simple thing you just know when you see it, but you can't define it using facts.
  Analogy: Trying to define "Good" is like trying to describe the color yellow to a blind person. You know what yellow is, but you can't define it using other words.

4. Free Will and Moral Responsibility

If a robot hits someone, we don't put the robot in jail because it doesn't have Free Will. Are humans any different?

• Hard Determinism: Everything is caused by something else (DNA, upbringing, environment). We have no choice, so we aren't "responsible."
• Libertarianism: We are totally free to choose our actions. Therefore, we are 100% responsible for what we do.
• Compatibilism: The middle ground. Some things are determined, but we still have enough "elbow room" to be held responsible for our choices.

Memory Aid:
Determinism = Destiny (No choice).
Libertarianism = Liberty (Total choice).

Key Takeaway: If we aren't free, can we be punished? This is why the Free Will debate is so important for the Law and Religion!

5. Conscience: Your Inner Voice

Is your conscience the "Voice of God" or just your brain repeating what your parents told you?

• Religious views: Aquinas saw conscience as "Ratio" (Reason) in action. It’s a God-given tool to help us apply NML.
• Non-religious views: Thinkers like Freud (though not explicitly on the syllabus scope here, the concept of "non-religious nature" is) argue it's just our social conditioning.
• The Value of Conscience: Is it a good guide? People have used their conscience to justify adultery or telling lies. If everyone’s conscience tells them something different, can we trust it?

6. Bentham vs. Kant

Finally, we compare two "heavyweights" of ethics and see if they fit with religion.

• Jeremy Bentham (Utilitarianism): Focuses on the "Greatest Happiness for the Greatest Number." It’s all about the consequences. This can clash with religion because it might allow "evil" acts if they result in happiness.
• Immanuel Kant (Duty): Focuses on the Categorical Imperative: "Do your duty, regardless of the results." This is more similar to religious "Commandments," but Kant relied on reason, not God's revelation.

Quick Review Box:
- Bentham: Ends justify the means. (Teleological)
- Kant: Rules are rules. (Deontological)

Summary Checklist

Before the exam, make sure you can:
1. Explain the difference between NML, Situation Ethics, and Virtue Ethics.
2. Apply those three theories to Abortion or Animal Testing.
3. Explain why Intuitionism says "Good" is like the color yellow.
4. Argue whether a person with no Free Will should be punished for a crime.