Approaches in Psychology

Welcome to the World of Psychological Approaches!

In this chapter, we are going to explore the different "lenses" psychologists use to look at human behavior. Think of these approaches like different apps on a smartphone: each one does something different, but together they give you the full experience. We will look at where Psychology started and the four main ways scientists explain why we do the things we do. Don't worry if it seems like a lot of names and theories at first—by the end of these notes, you’ll be able to spot these approaches in real life!

1. The Origins of Psychology

Psychology wasn't always a science. It started as a branch of philosophy. It only became a science in the late 1800s thanks to a man named Wilhelm Wundt.

Wilhelm Wundt: The Father of Psychology

In 1879, Wundt opened the first-ever psychology lab in Germany. He wanted to study the mind in a way that could be measured, just like biology or physics.

Introspection

Wundt’s main method was introspection. This literally means "looking inward." He would ask people to describe their own mental processes (thoughts, images, and feelings) in response to a stimulus, like a ticking metronome.
Example: If you listen to a song and try to describe every tiny feeling or memory it triggers the exact second you feel it, you are practicing a form of introspection!

The Emergence of Psychology as a Science

Wundt tried to make his experiments scientific by using:
• Standardised instructions: Every participant was asked to do the exact same thing.
• Controlled environments: This meant his results could be replicated (tested again by someone else to see if they got the same answer).

Quick Review: The Science Timeline

1. 1700s-1800s: Psychology is just philosophy.
2. 1879: Wundt uses introspection (not very scientific by modern standards, but a good start!).
3. 1900s: The Behaviourists (next section!) rejected Wundt, saying we should only study things we can see and measure.

Key Takeaway: Wundt moved psychology away from "armchair philosophy" and into the laboratory.

2. The Learning Approaches: (i) The Behaviourist Approach

The Behaviourists believe we are born as a "tabula rasa" (a blank slate). They argue that everything we are is learned from our environment. They ignore the "mind" because you can't see it—they only care about observable behaviour.

Classical Conditioning: Learning by Association

Ivan Pavlov showed that we can learn to react to something new by pairing it with something we already react to.
The Famous Study: Pavlov’s Dogs.
1. Dogs naturally drool (Unconditioned Response) when they see food (Unconditioned Stimulus).
2. Pavlov rang a bell (Neutral Stimulus) every time he gave them food.
3. Eventually, the dogs drooled just by hearing the bell! The bell became a Conditioned Stimulus.

Operant Conditioning: Learning by Consequences

B.F. Skinner argued that behavior is shaped by what happens after we do it. He used "Skinner Boxes" to study rats.
• Positive Reinforcement: Getting a reward for a behavior (e.g., the rat gets a food pellet for pressing a lever). This makes the behavior more likely to happen again.
• Negative Reinforcement: Doing something to stop something unpleasant (e.g., the rat presses a lever to stop a mild electric shock). This also makes the behavior more likely to happen again.
• Punishment: An unpleasant consequence (e.g., being told off). This makes the behavior less likely to happen again.

Common Mistake: Many students think Negative Reinforcement is a punishment. It’s not! Reinforcement (both positive and negative) always makes a behavior increase. Punishment makes it decrease.

Key Takeaway: Behaviourism focuses on "Stimulus-Response" and believes our environment dictates our actions.

3. The Learning Approaches: (ii) Social Learning Theory (SLT)

Albert Bandura agreed with the behaviourists but thought they were missing something important: thinking! SLT says we learn by watching others. It's the "bridge" between behaviorism and the cognitive approach.

Key Concepts of SLT

• Imitation: Copying the behavior of others.
• Identification: We are more likely to copy people we relate to (e.g., same age, gender, or someone we look up to). These people are Role Models, and the process is called Modelling.
• Vicarious Reinforcement: This is a big one! We don't have to be rewarded ourselves. If we see someone else get rewarded for a behavior, we are more likely to copy it.
Example: Seeing a classmate get praised for hand-raising makes you want to raise your hand too.

The Role of Mediational Processes

Bandura said that between seeing a behavior (stimulus) and copying it (response), there are four mental steps. You can remember them with the mnemonic ARRM:
1. Attention: You have to notice the behavior.
2. Retention: You have to remember it.
3. Reproduction: You have to be physically able to do it.
4. Motivation: You have to want to do it (usually based on rewards/punishment).

Did you know? Bandura’s famous Bobo Doll study showed that children who watched an adult being aggressive towards a doll were much more likely to be aggressive themselves when left alone with the doll.

Key Takeaway: SLT says we learn through observation and imitation, but our "mediational processes" (thoughts) help us decide whether to copy or not.

4. The Cognitive Approach

The Cognitive approach is the opposite of behaviorism. It focuses on the internal mental processes that the behaviorists ignored—like memory, perception, and thinking.

The Computer Analogy

Cognitive psychologists often compare the human mind to a computer.
• Input: Information comes in from our senses.
• Processing: Our brain stores and changes that information.
• Output: Our behavior or speech.

Schema: Our Mental Shortcuts

A schema is a "package" of ideas and information developed through experience. They act as a mental framework for interpreting incoming info.
Analogy: A schema is like a folder on your computer. When you see a "dog," your brain opens the "dog" folder, which tells you they have four legs, bark, and like treats. This helps you process information quickly so you don't have to relearn what a dog is every time you see one!

Theoretical and Computer Models

Because we can't see "thinking," psychologists make inferences (educated guesses) about what is happening based on behavior. They use models like the Multi-Store Model of Memory to explain how the mind works.

The Emergence of Cognitive Neuroscience

This is the modern side of the approach. It uses brain-scanning technology (like fMRI and PET scans) to see which parts of the brain are active during different mental tasks. It’s essentially "mapping the mind to the brain."

Key Takeaway: The Cognitive approach treats the mind like a processor, using schemas and models to explain how we think.

5. The Biological Approach

This approach says that everything psychological is at first biological. To understand behavior, we must look at genes, neurochemistry, and the nervous system.

Genes and Neurochemistry

• Genetic Basis: Some behaviors (like intelligence or certain mental illnesses) can be inherited from our parents.
• Neurochemistry: Chemicals in the brain (neurotransmitters) affect our mood and behavior. For example, low levels of serotonin are linked to depression.

Genotype and Phenotype

This is a common point of confusion, so let's break it down:
• Genotype: Your actual genetic makeup (the DNA code written in your cells).
• Phenotype: The way your genes are actually expressed (how you look and act).
Why are they different? Because the environment matters! For example, you might have the genotype to be very tall, but if you don't get enough nutrition as a child (environment), your phenotype might be shorter.

Evolution and Behaviour

Psychologists apply Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection. If a behavior helps an individual survive and reproduce, those genes will be passed on to the next generation.
Example: A "fear of snakes" might have helped our ancestors survive, which is why many people are still afraid of them today!

Key Takeaway: The Biological approach explains behavior through physical causes like DNA, brain structure, and chemicals.

Summary Table: Which is Which?

If you're stuck, ask yourself what the "cause" of behavior is for each approach:

• Behaviourist: My environment (rewards and associations).
• Social Learning: Watching and copying others.
• Cognitive: The way I process information and my "mental folders" (schemas).
• Biological: My DNA, brain structure, and chemicals.

Don't worry if this seems tricky at first! These approaches will pop up again in every other chapter of your Psychology course, so you'll get plenty of practice using them.