Welcome to the "Approaches" Chapter!
In Psychology, there isn't just one way to explain why people do what they do. Instead, psychologists use different approaches—think of these like different pairs of "glasses." Depending on which pair you put on, you see human behavior in a different way. Some focus on your upbringing, some on your thoughts, and some on your biology. This chapter is the foundation of everything you will study, so let’s dive in!
1. The Learning Approaches: (i) The Behaviourist Approach
The Behaviourist Approach is all about what we can actually see. Behaviourists believe we are born as a "blank slate" (tabula rasa) and everything we do is learned from our environment. They aren't interested in your "feelings"—only your observable behavior.
Classical Conditioning: Learning by Association
Ivan Pavlov showed that we can learn to react to something neutral if it is paired with something that already triggers a response.
Example: If you always hear a specific "ping" on your phone before getting a happy text, eventually just hearing that "ping" makes you feel happy. That is Classical Conditioning!
Pavlov’s Research:
1. Dogs naturally salivate (Unconditioned Response) when they see food (Unconditioned Stimulus).
2. Pavlov rang a bell (Neutral Stimulus) every time he fed them.
3. Eventually, the dogs salivated just by hearing the bell. The bell became a Conditioned Stimulus.
Operant Conditioning: Learning by Consequences
B.F. Skinner suggested that behavior is shaped by what happens after we do it. He used "Skinner Boxes" with rats to prove this.
- Positive Reinforcement: Getting a reward for a behavior (e.g., a rat getting a food pellet for pressing a lever). This makes the behavior more likely to happen again.
- Negative Reinforcement: Doing something to stop something unpleasant (e.g., a rat pressing a lever to stop an electric shock). This also makes the behavior more likely to happen again.
- Punishment: An unpleasant consequence that makes a behavior less likely to happen.
Quick Review:
Classical = Association. Operant = Consequences.
Memory Trick: Think of Operant as Options—you choose an action based on the result!
2. The Learning Approaches: (ii) Social Learning Theory (SLT)
Albert Bandura agreed with behaviorists but thought they were missing something: people also learn by watching others! This is called Social Learning Theory.
Key Concepts of SLT
Imitation: Simply copying what you see someone else do.
Identification: You are more likely to copy someone if you look up to them or feel they are like you (a role model).
Vicarious Reinforcement: This is a big one! It means you learn by watching someone else get rewarded or punished. If you see your friend get praised for working hard, you are more likely to work hard too.
The Role of Mediational Processes
Unlike strict behaviorists, Bandura believed we actually think before we copy someone. He identified four mediational processes:
- Attention: You have to notice the behavior.
- Retention: You have to remember the behavior.
- Motor Reproduction: You have to be physically able to do it.
- Motivation: You have to want to do it (usually based on rewards).
Mnemonic: Use A.R.M.M. (Attention, Retention, Motor, Motivation) to remember these!
Bandura’s Bobo Doll Research
Bandura showed children a film of an adult being aggressive toward an inflatable "Bobo doll." Children who saw the adult being rewarded for the aggression were much more likely to mimic the violence when they were let into the playroom. This proved that learning can happen without us doing the action ourselves.
Key Takeaway: SLT is the "bridge" between behaviorism and the cognitive approach because it considers both behavior and mental thought processes.
3. The Cognitive Approach
The Cognitive Approach focuses on how our mental processes (like thoughts, perception, and memory) affect our behavior. If behaviorists see us as reacting to the world, cognitive psychologists see us as information processors.
Internal Mental Processes and Inferences
Psychologists can't "see" a thought. Instead, they make inferences. This means they look at your behavior and "guess" what is happening in your mind.
Analogy: It’s like looking at a computer screen. You can't see the processor working inside, but you can infer it's working based on what appears on the screen.
The Role of Schema
A schema is a "mental package" of ideas and information developed through experience. They act as a mental shortcut so we don't have to relearn what things are every time we see them.
Example: Your schema for "school" probably includes classrooms, teachers, and desks.
Watch out: Schemas can sometimes lead to stereotypes or memory errors because we see what we expect to see rather than what is actually there.
Theoretical and Computer Models
To explain the mind, psychologists use models:
- Theoretical Models: These are flowcharts (like the Multi-Store Model of Memory) that show how information flows through the mind.
- Computer Models: Comparing the mind to a computer. We have an "input" (senses), "processing" (thinking/storage), and "output" (behavior).
The Emergence of Cognitive Neuroscience
This is the modern "marriage" between the Cognitive and Biological approaches. It uses brain scanning technology (like fMRI or PET scans) to see which parts of the physical brain are active when we think, remember, or feel emotions.
Quick Review Box:
- Focus: Internal thoughts.
- Method: Inferences based on models.
- Key Concept: Schemas (mental shortcuts).
4. The Biological Approach
Don't worry if this feels a bit like a Biology lesson! The Biological Approach simply believes that everything psychological is at first biological. To understand behavior, we must look at genes, the brain, and neurochemistry.
The Genetic Basis of Behaviour
Psychologists look at how much of our behavior is inherited from our parents. They often use twin studies to compare concordance rates (how similar twins are).
- Genotype: Your actual genetic makeup (your DNA).
- Phenotype: The way your genes are actually expressed through a mix of genetics and the environment.
Example: You might have the genotype to be tall, but if you don't eat well (environment), your phenotype might be that you are short.
Evolution and Behaviour
Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection applies here. If a behavior (like being afraid of snakes or being aggressive to protect territory) helps a human survive and reproduce, those "successful" genes are passed down to the next generation.
Biological Structures and Neurochemistry
- Biological Structures: This refers to the physical organs, like the brain and the nervous system. Different parts of the brain (like the lobes) have different jobs.
- Neurochemistry: This refers to chemicals in the brain called neurotransmitters (like Serotonin or Dopamine). An imbalance of these chemicals is often linked to behaviors (e.g., low Serotonin is linked to depression).
Summary Table: The Three Big Approaches
Approach: Behaviourist
Cause of Behaviour: Environment (Rewards/Punishment)
Key Term: Conditioning
Approach: Cognitive
Cause of Behaviour: Internal thoughts and Schemas
Key Term: Inferences
Approach: Biological
Cause of Behaviour: Genes, Brain, Chemistry
Key Term: Genotype/Phenotype
Final Tip: When answering exam questions, always ask yourself: "Is this explanation focusing on the environment (Behaviourist), the thought process (Cognitive), or the body (Biological)?" This will help you keep the approaches straight!