Relations between Greek states and between Greek and non-Greek states, 492–404 BC

Welcome to the Greek World: A 90-Year Rollercoaster!

In this chapter, we are going to explore one of the most exciting periods in human history (492–404 BC). You will see how the Greek city-states first banded together to fight off the mighty Persian Empire, only to turn on each other in a massive "world war" that changed everything. By the end of these notes, you’ll understand how Athens and Sparta went from being teammates to bitter rivals. Don't worry if it seems like a lot of names and dates at first—we'll break it down piece by piece!

1. The Challenge of the Persian Empire (492–479 BC)

Imagine a giant (the Persian Empire) trying to squash a group of tiny, argumentative ants (the Greek city-states). That is essentially how this period begins.

The First Wave: Marathon

The Persians, led first by King Darius, wanted to punish Athens for helping Greeks living in Persian territory. In 492 BC, Mardonius led an expedition that hit some bad weather, but in 490 BC, the Persians landed at Marathon. Against the odds, the Athenian "hoplites" (heavy infantry) won.
Did you know? The "Marathon" race we run today is named after the messenger who supposedly ran 26 miles to tell Athens they had won!

The Second Wave: Xerxes and the Hellenic League

Ten years later, King Xerxes returned with a massive army. This time, the Greeks knew they had to work together. They formed the Hellenic League. However, not everyone was brave. Some Greeks practiced Medising—this is a key term that means "siding with the Persians."
Memory Aid: Think of "Medising" as "Messing with the enemy."

Key Battles and Strategy

• Strategy: The Greeks used narrow spaces (like the pass at Thermopylae or the straits of Salamis) to negate the Persians' huge numbers.
• The Turning Point: The naval battle of Salamis (480 BC) and the land battle of Plataea (479 BC) finally forced the Persians to retreat.
Key Takeaway: Greek victory was due to a mix of superior armor, clever use of geography, and the (temporary) unity of Athens and Sparta.

2. Greece in Conflict: The Growing Divide (479–446 BC)

Once the "big bad guy" was gone, the two heroes—Athens and Sparta—started looking at each other with suspicion. This period is often called the Pentekontaetia (the Fifty Years), though our focus is on the conflict it created.

The Delian League vs. Sparta's Concerns

Athens formed the Delian League to keep fighting Persia. Think of it like a subscription service: Greek states paid Athens money or gave ships, and Athens provided protection. Over time, Athens stopped being a "leader" and started being a "boss" (an empire). Sparta, meanwhile, led the Peloponnesian League and became worried that Athens was getting too powerful.

The Helot Revolt and the First Peloponnesian War

In 465 BC, a massive earthquake hit Sparta. This triggered a revolt by the Helots (Sparta’s enslaved population). Sparta asked Athens for help but then got scared and sent the Athenian soldiers home! This was a huge insult and led to the First Peloponnesian War (461–446 BC).
• Megara's Defection: A small city called Megara left Sparta’s side to join Athens. This made Sparta and their ally, Corinth, very angry.
• Battle of Tanagra: A major clash where the Spartans actually won, but the war eventually ground to a halt.

Key Takeaway: The "Golden Age" of Athens was built on an empire that terrified its neighbors, especially Sparta.

3. Peace and the Path to War (446–431 BC)

In 446 BC, both sides signed the Thirty Years' Peace. It was supposed to keep the balance of power, but it was more like a "cold war."

The Causes of the Big War (431 BC)

Historians (like Thucydides) argue about why the war started. Thucydides said the "truest cause" was Sparta’s fear of Athenian power. Three specific sparks lit the fire:
1. Corcyra: Athens helped a colony fight Sparta’s ally, Corinth.
2. Potidaea: An Athenian-controlled city that wanted to rebel.
3. The Megarian Decree: Athens banned the city of Megara from all Athenian ports (like an economic sanction).
Analogy: If Greece was a playground, the Megarian Decree was Athens telling Megara they weren't allowed to use any of the cool toys.

Quick Review: The war in 431 BC wasn't just about one event; it was the result of years of tension and "power-grabbing" by Athens.

4. The Archidamian War (431–420 BC)

This was the first ten years of the Great Peloponnesian War. It was named after the Spartan King, Archidamus.

Contrasting Strategies

• Athenian Strategy (Pericles): Hunker down behind the Long Walls and use the navy to get food. Don't fight the Spartans on land!
• Spartan Strategy: Invade the Athenian countryside (Attica) and burn the farms to force a fight.
Don't worry if this seems tricky: Just remember Athens = Sea Power, Sparta = Land Power.

Turning Points

• The Plague: A terrible disease hit Athens, killing their leader Pericles and thousands of others.
• Pylos and Sphacteria: In 425 BC, Athens captured 120 elite Spartan soldiers. This was a massive shock because Spartans were never supposed to surrender!
• Brasidas in Thrace: A brilliant Spartan general named Brasidas captured Athenian territories in the north, hurting Athens' silver and timber supply.

The Peace of Nicias (421 BC)

Both sides were exhausted and signed a peace treaty. However, many allies (like Corinth) refused to sign it, meaning the "peace" was doomed from the start.

Key Takeaway: Neither side could find a "knockout blow" because they were fighting in two different ways (Land vs. Sea).

5. The Final Countdown (419–404 BC)

This is where everything goes wrong for Athens. The peace breaks down, and the war enters its final, most violent phase.

The Sicilian Expedition (415–413 BC)

Athens made a huge mistake. They sent a massive fleet to conquer the island of Sicily. It was a disaster. They lost almost their entire navy and thousands of men.
Analogy: Imagine a gambler betting their entire house on one card game and losing. Athens never fully recovered.

The Persian Intervention

Sparta did the unthinkable: they asked their old enemy, Persia, for money! Persia wanted to weaken the Greeks, so they gave Sparta the gold to build a fleet. In return, Sparta allowed Persia to take back control of some Greek cities in Asia Minor.

The End: Decelea and Aegospotami

• Decelea: Sparta occupied a fort right in Athens' backyard, preventing them from farming year-round.
• Aegospotami: The Spartan general Lysander destroyed the last Athenian fleet in 405 BC.
In 404 BC, Athens finally surrendered. Their walls were torn down, and their empire was gone.

Key Takeaway: Athens lost because of the Sicilian disaster, Spartan persistence, and—most importantly—Persian gold.

Historical Debates: Thinking like a Historian

To get top marks, you need to consider different viewpoints. Here are the three big questions for this chapter:

1. Why did the Greeks beat Persia? Was it because of their unity, or because the Persians were overstretched and overconfident?
2. Who started the Peloponnesian War? Was it Athens' bullying or Sparta's paranoia?
3. Why did Athens lose? Was it because of the plague, the mistake in Sicily, or the Persian-Spartan alliance?

Common Mistake to Avoid: Don't assume Sparta was "bad" and Athens was "good." Both sides were fighting for power and used brutal tactics to get it!