Welcome to International Relations 1890–1941!
Hi there! Welcome to one of the most exciting parts of your History A Level. In this unit, we’re going to explore how the world transformed from a collection of empires into a global battlefield, twice. We’ll look at why countries couldn’t get along, how they tried to fix things after the first "Great War," and why it all fell apart again in the 1930s.
Don't worry if this seems like a lot of names and dates at first—we’re going to break it down into stories about power, mistakes, and big personalities. Think of it like a giant, high-stakes game of chess where the players keep changing the rules!
Section 1: The Causes and Nature of the First World War
Before 1914, Europe was like a "powder keg" waiting for a spark. To understand why it exploded, we use a simple memory aid.
The "MAIN" Causes of the War
1. Militarism: This is when a country thinks having a huge army and navy is the most important thing. Germany and Britain were in a "Naval Race," competing to see who could build the most Dreadnoughts (huge, powerful battleships).
2. Alliances: Countries made "best friend" deals to protect each other. We had the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) and the Triple Entente (Britain, France, Russia).
Analogy: Imagine a school playground where if you pick a fight with one kid, their five older brothers all jump in. That's how alliances worked!
3. Imperialism: Countries were arguing over who got to own parts of Africa and Asia. This led to the Moroccan Crises, where Germany tried to challenge French control.
4. Nationalism: People were becoming very proud of their own nations and wanted independence. This was especially a problem in the Balkans (South-East Europe).
The Spark: The July Crisis
In June 1914, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne was assassinated in Sarajevo. This triggered the July Crisis, a series of diplomatic failures where countries moved from talking to mobilising their armies. Germany’s Schlieffen Plan (a strategy to knock out France quickly before fighting Russia) meant they invaded neutral Belgium, which finally brought Britain into the war.
The Nature of the War
The war wasn't what anyone expected. It turned into a "War of Attrition" (trying to wear the other side down until they give up).
- Western Front: Known for trench warfare, where soldiers lived in muddy ditches for years.
- Eastern Front: Much larger and more mobile, but just as deadly.
- Technology: For the first time, we saw tanks, aeroplanes, and submarines (U-boats) used to change how battles were fought.
Quick Review: Why did the Allies win?
The Allies (Britain, France, USA) eventually won because of:
1. The entry of the USA in 1917, which brought fresh troops and massive amounts of money and supplies.
2. The British naval blockade, which literally starved Germany of food and materials.
3. Improved technology and better "generals" who finally figured out how to break the trench deadlock.
Key Takeaway: WWI was caused by long-term tensions (MAIN) and a short-term mistake (the July Crisis). It changed from a quick fight into a global struggle of endurance.
Section 2: Peacemaking and the League of Nations (1919–1935)
After the fighting stopped, the leaders met in Paris to decide what to do with the world. This is often called "The Peace to End All Peace" because the decisions made here caused a lot of anger later on.
The Paris Peace Conference & The "Big Four"
The main decisions were made by the leaders of Britain, France, Italy, and the USA.
- Woodrow Wilson (USA): Wanted a "fair" peace and a League of Nations.
- Georges Clemenceau (France): Wanted to punish Germany so badly they could never fight again.
- David Lloyd George (Britain): Was in the middle—wanted to punish Germany but also keep them as a trading partner.
The Treaty of Versailles (1919)
This was the treaty for Germany. It was very harsh:
- Article 231 (War Guilt Clause): Germany had to accept total blame for the war.
- Reparations: Germany had to pay \(£6.6\) billion in damages.
- Military: Their army was limited to 100,000 men and they couldn't have submarines or an air force.
- Land: Germany lost 13% of its land and all its colonies.
The League of Nations: The "World Referee"
The League was an organisation where countries could talk about their problems instead of fighting.
- Successes: It solved small fights like the Greek-Bulgarian war and helped with social issues like ending slavery and stopping diseases.
- Failures: It struggled when powerful countries were involved. For example, it couldn't stop Italy during the Corfu Incident or Japan in the Manchurian Crisis.
Common Mistake to Avoid: Don't say the League was a total failure! It did great work on humanitarian issues, but it lacked its own army to stop "bully" nations.
Diplomacy in the 1920s
For a while, things looked better.
- Locarno Treaties: Germany agreed to its western borders.
- Kellogg-Briand Pact: 65 nations promised never to use war to solve disputes.
- Naval Agreements: The Washington and London agreements limited how many warships countries could build to prevent another arms race.
Key Takeaway: The 1920s were a "golden age" of hope, but the harshness of the Treaty of Versailles left Germany very bitter.
Section 3: Dictators and Appeasers (1929–1941)
In 1929, the world’s economy crashed (the Great Depression). This changed everything. When people are poor and hungry, they often vote for "strongman" dictators who promise easy fixes.
The Impact of the Great Depression
The Depression made countries more selfish. They stopped trading and started looking for land and resources to steal. This destroyed the "spirit of cooperation" from the 1920s.
The Policy of Appeasement
Britain and France followed a policy called Appeasement.
Analogy: Imagine a bully asks for your ruler. You give it to them hoping they’ll leave you alone. Then they ask for your pen. Then your lunch money. That was Appeasement.
Britain and France let Hitler (Germany) and Mussolini (Italy) break rules because they were terrified of starting another world war. This allowed Hitler to take back the Rhineland, unite with Austria, and eventually take parts of Czechoslovakia.
The Road to War in Europe
1. Italian Foreign Policy: Mussolini wanted to build a new Roman Empire, leading him to invade Abyssinia (Ethiopia). This drove a wedge between Italy and the League of Nations.
2. Spanish Civil War: This was a "dress rehearsal" for WWII. Germany and Italy tested their new weapons while Britain and France stayed out of it.
3. The Nazi-Soviet Pact (1939): In a shock move, Hitler and Stalin (the leader of Russia) agreed not to fight each other and to split Poland between them. This meant Hitler could invade Poland without worrying about Russia attacking him from behind.
Key Takeaway: The Depression led to the rise of dictators. Britain and France tried to keep peace through Appeasement, but it only made the dictators bolder.
Section 4: The Far East (1918–1941)
While things were heating up in Europe, Japan was becoming the "rising sun" of the East. Japan felt disrespected by the Western powers and wanted its own empire.
Japan’s Frustration
Japan helped the Allies in WWI, but at the Treaty of Versailles, they weren't given the land or the "Racial Equality Clause" they wanted. This fueled Nationalism in Japan during the 1920s and 30s.
The Manchurian Crisis (1931)
Japan’s army invaded Manchuria (part of China) to get coal and iron. When the League of Nations told them to leave, Japan simply quit the League. This showed the world that the League was powerless against a strong country.
The War Between Japan and China (1937–1941)
Japan launched a full-scale invasion of China. This was incredibly brutal. The USA and Britain started to worry about their own trade and colonies in Asia. They tried to stop Japan by using "economic sanctions"—refusing to sell Japan oil and steel.
The Path to Pearl Harbor
Japan was stuck. They needed oil for their war in China, but the USA had cut them off. They decided their only choice was to strike first. They invaded Indo-China (Vietnam) and then attacked the US naval base at Pearl Harbor in December 1941 to try and knock the US out of the Pacific. This brought the USA into the war against both Japan and Germany.
Key Takeaway: Japan's desire for an empire and its need for resources led it into a direct conflict with the USA, turning the regional war in Europe into a truly global World War.
Quick Review Box: The Big Turning Points
1. 1914: Assassination triggers WWI.
2. 1919: Treaty of Versailles creates a "fragile" peace.
3. 1929: Great Depression brings dictators to power.
4. 1931: Manchuria shows the League is weak.
5. 1939: Hitler invades Poland; WWII begins in Europe.
6. 1941: Pearl Harbor brings the USA into the war.
You've made it through the notes! Remember, History isn't just about memorising; it's about seeing how one event leads to the next. Good luck with your revision!