Child psychology

Welcome to the World of Child Psychology!

Hello there! Welcome to your study guide for the Child Psychology option of the OCR A Level Psychology course. This chapter is part of the Applied Psychology section. We are going to explore how children grow, think, and interact with the world around them.

Don't worry if some of these topics seem complex at first—we've broken everything down into bite-sized pieces. We will look at how biology, our thoughts (cognition), and our social lives shape who we become. Let’s dive in!

1. Intelligence (Biological)

What is Intelligence? Psychologists often debate whether intelligence is something we are born with (nature) or something we develop through our environment (nurture). In this section, we focus on the biological side.

Background: Nature vs. Nurture

Psychologists want to know how much of our IQ comes from our parents' genes. They use heritability to describe this.
Analogy: Think of intelligence like a garden. The seeds (genes) give the potential, but the soil and water (environment) determine how well the plants actually grow.

Key Research: Van Leeuwen et al. (2008)

This was a twin-family study. Instead of just looking at twins, they looked at twins, their siblings, and their parents to get a bigger picture of General IQ.

• The Goal: To see if "smart people marry smart people" (assortative mating) and how much IQ is inherited.
• The Findings: They found that heritability for intelligence is about 67%. This means genes play a very large role!
• Assortative Mating: They found that parents often have similar IQs, which can make the "intelligence genes" even stronger in their children.

Application: Assessing Intelligence

How do we measure this? The most common method is using IQ Tests (like the Raven’s Progressive Matrices). These tests often use patterns and logic rather than words to make them fairer for everyone.

Quick Review: Van Leeuwen found that genes are a huge part of IQ, but the environment still matters!

2. Pre-adult Brain Development (Biological)

Have you ever wondered why teenagers sometimes make risky or "silly" decisions? It’s not just "being a teen"—it’s actually down to how the brain grows!

Background: The "Brake" and the "Engine"

In the adolescent brain, two parts are working at different speeds:
1. The Ventral Striatum (The Engine): This is part of the Limbic System. it seeks rewards and excitement. It matures early.
2. The Prefrontal Cortex (The Brakes): This part handles logic and self-control. It doesn't fully mature until your mid-20s!

Analogy: A teenager is like a car with a very powerful engine but very weak brakes. They are ready to go fast, but not always ready to stop!

Key Research: Barkley-Levenson and Galván (2014)

They used fMRI scans to look at the brains of teenagers and adults while they played a gambling game for money.

• What happened? When there was a chance to win money, the Ventral Striatum in teenagers lit up much more than in adults.
• Conclusion: Teenagers aren't "bad" at logic; their brains are just hyper-sensitive to rewards. The "thrill" of winning outweighs the "fear" of losing.

Application: Reducing Risk-Taking

We can use this knowledge to help. For example, Graduated Driver Licensing (not letting new young drivers drive at night or with many friends) helps keep them safe while their "brain brakes" are still finishing construction.

3. Perceptual Development (Cognitive)

How do babies see the world? Do they know that a drop-off is dangerous, or do they have to learn it the hard way?

Background: Depth Perception

Perception is how we make sense of what we see. One of the most important things for a baby to learn is depth perception (knowing how far away things are).

Key Research: Gibson and Walk (1960)

They created the famous Visual Cliff. It was a table with a glass top. One side looked "shallow" and the other looked like a "deep drop" (though it was perfectly safe glass).

• The Participants: Human babies (6-14 months) and various baby animals (chicks, kids, kittens).
• Results: Most babies would crawl to the shallow side but refused to cross the "deep" side, even when their moms called them.
• Conclusion: Depth perception seems to be innate (we are born with it) or develops as soon as we can move around.

Application: Play Strategies

To help children develop their senses, we use Sensory Play.
Example: Using "busy boards" with different textures, shapes, and mirrors helps a child's brain learn to interpret what their eyes and hands are telling them.

4. Cognitive Development and Education (Cognitive)

This section looks at how children learn to solve problems and how adults can help them.

Background: Scaffolding

Bruner and Vygotsky argued that children learn best when they are given a little bit of help that is slowly taken away as they get better. This is called Scaffolding.

Did you know? This is just like a real scaffold on a building. It stays there while the building is being built and is removed once the building can stand on its own!

Key Research: Wood et al. (1976)

They watched how 4-year-olds tried to build a 3D wooden pyramid with a tutor.

• The Strategy: The tutor didn't just do it for them. They used scaffolding. This included:
  • Recruitment: Getting the child interested.
  • Reduction in degrees of freedom: Breaking the task into smaller steps.
  • Direction maintenance: Keeping the child on track.
• Finding: The most successful learning happened when the tutor adjusted their help based on what the child was doing at that exact moment.

Application: Improving Learning

In school, teachers use this by giving prompts or mnemonics (like "Never Eat Shredded Wheat" for North, East, South, West). As you learn, the teacher stops giving the prompts.

Quick Review: Scaffolding = Providing the right amount of help at the right time.

5. Development of Attachment (Social)

Attachment is the deep emotional bond between a baby and their primary caregiver (usually Mom or Dad).

Background: Why Attach?

Early psychologists thought babies just loved whoever fed them. However, we now know it's about comfort and security. If a child doesn't form a bond, it can lead to emotional struggles later in life.

Key Research: Ainsworth and Bell (1970) - The Strange Situation

This is one of the most famous studies in psychology! They put babies in a room and had the mother leave and a stranger enter to see how the baby reacted.

They found three main types of attachment:

• 1. Secure Attachment: The baby is upset when Mom leaves, but happy and easily calmed when she returns. (This is the most common and healthy type).
• 2. Insecure-Avoidant: The baby doesn't seem to care if Mom leaves or returns.
• 3. Insecure-Resistant: The baby is extremely upset when Mom leaves, but when she returns, they are clingy but also angry (might kick or push away).

Application: Attachment-Friendly Environments

We use this research to make places like hospitals and nurseries better. For example, hospitals now allow parents to stay overnight with their children because they know that "separation anxiety" is real and can be harmful.

6. Impact of Advertising on Children (Social)

Should we be worried about what kids see on TV? Psychologists look at how adverts might be teaching children stereotypes.

Background: Social Learning Theory

Children learn by observing and imitating others. If they see boys playing with trucks and girls playing with dolls on TV, they might think "That’s how I’m supposed to act."

Key Research: Johnson and Young (2002)

They analysed toy commercials on TV to see how they used language and voices.

• The Findings:
  • Boys' ads: Used fast-paced music, "power" words (like "destroy," "battle"), and loud, aggressive male voices.
  • Girls' ads: Used gentle music, "nurture" words (like "love," "magic"), and soft, high-pitched female voices.
• Conclusion: Adverts are reinforcing gender stereotypes by using specific "gendered" language and imagery.

Application: Reducing the Impact

One strategy is Media Literacy. This means teaching children in school how adverts work so they can think critically about them. "Is that toy really that cool, or is it just the fast music making it seem that way?"

Summary Takeaway: Child psychology shows us that growing up is a mix of the brain we are born with, the way we think, and the society that teaches us how to behave!