Welcome to Normative Ethical Theories!
Welcome to one of the most exciting parts of your Religious Studies course! In this chapter, we are going to explore Normative Ethical Theories. Simply put, these are "rule-books" or "frameworks" that help us decide what is right and what is wrong.
Why does this matter? Well, imagine you found a wallet on the street. Do you keep it? Do you hand it in? Different theories will give you different answers based on their own logic. By the end of these notes, you’ll be able to look at any moral dilemma through the eyes of four great thinkers. Don't worry if it seems like a lot of names and terms at first—we'll break it down step-by-step!
1. Natural Law (Thomas Aquinas)
Natural Law is a religious, deontological (duty-based), and absolutist theory. This means it believes there are fixed moral rules that apply to everyone, everywhere, at all times.
The Big Idea: Telos
Aquinas was heavily influenced by the Greek philosopher Aristotle. Aristotle believed everything has a telos—a Greek word meaning "purpose" or "end goal."
Example: The telos of an acorn is to become an oak tree. The telos of a pen is to write.
Aquinas argued that humans have a telos too: to become more like God and live with Him in heaven. To do this, we must follow the "design" God put into nature.
The Four Tiers of Law
Aquinas imagined law like a pyramid. To understand how to behave, we look at these four levels:
1. Eternal Law: God’s mind. We can’t fully know this, but it’s the blueprint for the universe.
2. Divine Law: Rules revealed in the Bible (like the Ten Commandments).
3. Natural Law: The moral law "written on our hearts." We use our reason to figure this out.
4. Human Law: The everyday laws of our country (like speed limits).
The Five Primary Precepts
Aquinas said there is one "Key Precept": Do good and avoid evil. To help us do this, he identified five "Primary Precepts" (goals) that all humans naturally want to achieve.
Memory Aid (Mnemonic): Just remember P.O.W.E.R.
1. Preservation of life (Stay alive!)
2. Ordered society (Live peacefully with others.)
3. Worship God (Recognize our creator.)
4. Education of children (Teach the next generation.)
5. Reproduction (Keep the human race going!)
Secondary Precepts: These are the specific rules we make to uphold the Primary Precepts. For example, because "Preservation of Life" is a Primary Precept, we make a Secondary Precept that "Murder is wrong."
The Doctrine of Double Effect
Sometimes, an action has two effects: one good and one bad. Aquinas said an action is okay if your intention is to do the good thing, even if you know a bad side-effect might happen.
Example: A doctor gives a dying patient strong medicine to stop their pain (good intention), knowing it might accidentally shorten their life (bad side-effect). This is allowed under Natural Law.
Quick Review Box
Core Concept: Follow nature and reason to reach your telos.
Key Term: Synderesis (the natural urge to do good).
Important: It is Absolutist—the rules don't change based on the situation.
Key Takeaway: Natural Law says we use our God-given reason to follow nature's design. If an action prevents us from achieving one of the Primary Precepts, it is wrong.
2. Situation Ethics (Joseph Fletcher)
If Natural Law is about strict rules, Situation Ethics is about flexibility. It is a religious but teleological (results-based) and relativist theory.
The Big Idea: Agape
Fletcher argued that there is only one absolute rule: Agape. This is a Greek word for unconditional, selfless love—the kind of love Jesus showed. In every situation, you should ask: "What is the most loving thing to do?"
The Four Working Principles
Before making a decision, Fletcher says you must use these four "tools":
1. Pragmatism: The solution must actually work in the real world.
2. Relativism: There are no "always" or "never" rules. Everything depends on love.
3. Positivism: You must start with a positive leap of faith that love is the highest good.
4. Personalism: People come first, not laws. Laws exist to serve people.
The Six Propositions
Fletcher gave six points to explain how love works. Here are the most important ones for your exam:
1. Love is the only thing that is intrinsically good (good in itself).
2. Love and justice are the same thing (justice is just love being shared out).
3. The end justifies the means (if the result is loving, any action is okay).
4. Love's decisions are made situationally, not according to pre-set rules.
Conscience as a Verb
Did you know? Fletcher didn't think the conscience was a "thing" inside you (like a little angel on your shoulder). He believed it was a verb—something you do when you are busy weighing up the most loving thing to do.
Key Takeaway: Situation Ethics rejects "legalism" (too many rules) and "antinomianism" (no rules at all). Instead, it uses Agape as a middle ground to decide what to do in each unique situation.
3. Kantian Ethics (Immanuel Kant)
Kant was a 18th-century philosopher who wanted an ethics based purely on reason, not on religion or feelings. His theory is secular, deontological, and absolutist.
The Big Idea: Duty
For Kant, being good means doing your duty. You shouldn't do the right thing because you feel like it, or because it makes you happy. You do it because it is the "right" thing to do.
Analogy: Imagine a shopkeeper who is honest only because he's afraid of getting caught. Kant says he isn't being "moral." A moral shopkeeper is honest simply because honesty is a duty.
The Categorical Imperative
Kant distinguished between two types of "imperatives" (commands):
Hypothetical Imperative: "If you want X, do Y." (e.g., "If you want to pass, study.") These aren't moral rules.
Categorical Imperative: "Do X." (e.g., "Don't lie.") These are moral duties that apply to everyone.
The Three Formulations
How do we know if a rule is a duty? We test it using these three steps:
1. The Universal Law: Only do something if you would be happy for everyone else in the world to do it too. (If everyone lied, the concept of "truth" would disappear!)
2. The End in Itself: Never use people just to get what you want. Treat every person as a valuable individual, not a tool.
3. The Kingdom of Ends: Act as if you are a law-maker in a world where everyone treats each other with total respect.
The Three Postulates
Don't worry if this seems tricky at first! Kant realized that doing your duty doesn't always make you happy in this life. So, he said we have to postulate (assume) three things to make sense of morality:
1. Freedom: We must be free to choose, or we can't be blamed.
2. Immortality: There must be a life after death where goodness is rewarded.
3. God: There must be a God to make sure the "highest good" (happiness and virtue together) is achieved eventually.
Key Takeaway: Kantian ethics is about consistency. If you wouldn't want a rule to be universal, don't follow it. Ethics is about Duty, not consequences or emotions.
4. Utilitarianism (Bentham and Mill)
Utilitarianism is a secular, teleological, and relativist theory. It focuses entirely on the consequences of our actions.
The Big Idea: Utility
Jeremy Bentham, the founder, believed humans are ruled by two masters: Pain and Pleasure. The goal of ethics is Utility: "The greatest good for the greatest number."
Bentham’s Act Utilitarianism
Bentham used the Hedonic Calculus to "calculate" how much pleasure an action would bring. He looked at 7 factors, including:
• Intensity: How strong is the pleasure?
• Duration: How long does it last?
• Purity: Is it "pure" pleasure, or is it mixed with pain?
• Extent: How many people are affected?
In Act Utilitarianism, you calculate the result for every single action you take.
Mill’s Rule Utilitarianism
John Stuart Mill thought Bentham's version was too simple. He worried it could justify "mob rule" (e.g., if 10 people enjoy bullying 1 person, Bentham's math might say that's okay!).
Mill introduced Higher and Lower Pleasures:
• Higher Pleasures: Things that stimulate the mind (reading, art, philosophy).
• Lower Pleasures: Things that satisfy the body (eating, sleeping).
Famous Quote: "It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied."
Rule Utilitarianism: Instead of calculating every act, we follow general rules that usually lead to the greatest happiness for society (like "don't steal").
Quick Review Box
Bentham: Quantitative (focus on amount of pleasure). Act Utilitarianism.
Mill: Qualitative (focus on quality of pleasure). Rule Utilitarianism.
Common Mistake: Thinking Utilitarianism is about making yourself happy. It's about the total happiness of everyone involved!
Key Takeaway: Utilitarianism says we should choose the path that results in the most happiness and the least suffering for the most people.
Summary: Which one is which?
To help you keep these straight in your exam, remember this quick guide:
• Natural Law: Rules based on Reason and Nature (Religious).
• Situation Ethics: Rules based on Love (Agape) (Religious).
• Kantian Ethics: Rules based on Duty and Consistency (Secular).
• Utilitarianism: Rules based on Happiness and Consequences (Secular).
You're doing great! Ethics can be complex, but if you remember the "Big Idea" for each thinker, you'll be able to build a fantastic argument in your essays. Keep practicing applying these to real-world issues like Euthanasia and Business Ethics!