Welcome to Religious Ethics!
Hi everyone! Welcome to one of the most fascinating parts of your A Level course. In this section, we’re looking at Normative Ethical Theories. "Normative" just means we are looking for the "norms" or rules that tell us how we ought to behave.
We are going to focus on two major religious approaches: Natural Law (which likes fixed rules) and Situation Ethics (which prefers to look at every situation individually). Don't worry if these seem a bit heavy at first—we'll break them down step-by-step with plenty of examples!
1. Natural Law (Thomas Aquinas)
Natural Law is a "deontological" theory, which means it focuses on duties and rules. It was developed by Thomas Aquinas, a 13th-century monk who believed that God gave us reason so we could figure out how to live a good life.
The Concept of Telos
Aquinas didn't start from scratch; he borrowed the idea of telos from the Greek philosopher Aristotle.
Analogy: Think of an acorn. Its "telos" (purpose or end goal) is to become a mighty oak tree. If it does that, it’s a "good" acorn.
Aquinas argued that humans also have a telos. For him, our ultimate goal is to reach perfection and spend eternity with God.
The Four Tiers of Law
Aquinas thought the universe followed a hierarchy of laws. You can think of these like different levels of a building code:
1. Eternal Law: These are the mind-blowing principles God used to create and control the whole universe. Only God fully knows these.
2. Divine Law: This is what God revealed to us in the Bible (like the Ten Commandments or Jesus' Sermon on the Mount).
3. Natural Law: This is the "moral law" that God built into human nature. We don't need a Bible to find this; we can discover it just by using our reason.
4. Human Law: These are the everyday laws of our countries (like "don't speed"). For Aquinas, these are only valid if they match up with Natural Law.
The Precepts: Our Guide to Living
Aquinas stated one Key Precept: "Do good and avoid evil." But that’s a bit vague, right? So, he developed Five Primary Precepts to give us more detail.
Memory Aid: Use the mnemonic W.O.R.D.E. (or P.O.W.E.R.) to remember them!
P - Preservation of life (Life is a gift; don't destroy it).
O - Ordered society (We need to live peacefully together).
W - Worship of God (Recognizing our creator).
E - Education of children (Helping the next generation grow).
R - Reproduction (Ensuring the human race continues).
From these, we get Secondary Precepts. These are specific rules. For example, if "Preserving Life" is a Primary Precept, then a Secondary Precept would be "Do not commit murder" or "Do not commit suicide."
Quick Review: The Doctrine of Double Effect
Sometimes, doing something good has a bad side effect. This doctrine says an action is okay if the intention was good, even if a bad result happens.
Example: A doctor gives a dying patient a high dose of morphine to take away their pain (good intention), knowing it might accidentally shorten their life (bad side effect). Because the doctor intended to help, not kill, Aquinas would say this is okay.
Key Takeaway: Natural Law is about using reason to follow the "built-in" purposes of human life. If an action helps you reach your telos, it's usually "good."
2. Situation Ethics (Joseph Fletcher)
If Natural Law is a set of "forever rules," Situation Ethics is the opposite. Developed in the 1960s by Joseph Fletcher, it’s a "teleological" or "consequentialist" theory because it focuses on the outcome of an action.
The Heart of the Theory: Agape
Fletcher argued that there is only one absolute rule: Agape.
Did you know? In the New Testament, Agape isn't romantic love or friendship. It is unconditional, selfless love for all people, even your enemies. Fletcher believed this was the core of Jesus' teaching.
The Four Working Principles
Before making a decision, Fletcher says you should check these four "working" ideas:
1. Pragmatism: The solution must actually work in the real world. No "ivory tower" theories!
2. Relativism: There are no fixed rules like "never lie." Everything is "relative" to Agape. You only lie if it’s the most loving thing to do.
3. Positivism: You have to start with a "positive" leap of faith that Agape is the highest good.
4. Personalism: People come first, not laws. The law is there to serve people, not the other way around.
The Six Propositions
These are the "logic" steps of the theory. Don't worry if they seem repetitive; they all reinforce the same point: Love is the boss!
1. Love is the only thing that is intrinsically good. (Not money, not even life—just love).
2. Love is the ruling norm. (Love replaces the Ten Commandments).
3. Love and justice are the same thing. (Justice is just love distributed fairly).
4. Love wills the neighbor's good. (It doesn't matter if you like your neighbor; you must love them).
5. The end justifies the means. (If the result is a massive amount of Agape, the action is right).
6. Love's decisions are made situationally. (No pre-packaged answers!).
Conscience as a "Verb"
Fletcher had a very different view of conscience. He said it isn't a "thing" inside you (a noun) that tells you what's right. Instead, conscience is a verb—it's the process of making a decision creatively in the moment. It is "doing" ethics, not just "having" a moral compass.
Key Takeaway: Situation Ethics says we should throw away the rulebook and ask one question: "What is the most loving thing to do in this specific situation?"
3. Comparing the Two (Exam Skills)
When you're writing your essays, it's helpful to compare these two. Here are some quick points to think about:
Fixed vs. Flexible: Natural Law gives clear, certain rules (Great for stability!). Situation Ethics is flexible (Great for messy, real-life dilemmas!).
Human Nature: Natural Law assumes we all share the same "built-in" nature. Situation Ethics assumes every situation is unique.
Religious or Not? Natural Law is very Catholic. Fletcher claimed Situation Ethics was the true "Christian" way, but many religious leaders disagreed, calling it "too subjective" or "individualistic."
Common Mistake to Avoid:
Don't assume Situation Ethics means "doing whatever you want." It’s not about your own happiness—it's about selfless Agape love. It’s actually quite hard to do correctly!
Quick Review Box:
- Natural Law: Aquinas, Reason, Telos, Primary Precepts, Fixed Rules.
- Situation Ethics: Fletcher, Agape, 4 Principles, 6 Propositions, Flexible Outcomes.