Welcome to Applied Ethics!
In this chapter, we are moving from "theory" to "practice." Think of the ethical theories you have studied (like Natural Law or Utilitarianism) as a set of tools in a toolbox. Applied Ethics is the process of taking those tools and using them to fix real-world problems. We will look at two big issues: Euthanasia and Business Ethics. Don't worry if it seems like a lot to take in at first—we will break it down step-by-step!
1. Euthanasia
Euthanasia comes from the Greek words meaning "a good death." In modern ethics, it refers to the act of deliberately ending a person's life to relieve their suffering, usually from an incurable or terminal illness.
Key Concepts to Know
To understand the debate, you need to know these four main ideas:
- Sanctity of Life: A religious concept. It is the belief that human life is made in God's image (Imago Dei) and is therefore sacred. Only God has the right to give or take life.
- Quality of Life: A secular (non-religious) concept. It suggests that life only has value if it possesses certain attributes (like being free from pain or having consciousness). If the "quality" is too low, life might lose its value.
- Voluntary Euthanasia: When a person's life is ended at their own request or with their clear consent. Example: A patient with terminal cancer asking a doctor for help to die.
- Non-voluntary Euthanasia: When a person's life is ended without their consent because they are unable to give it (e.g., they are in a coma), but someone else makes the decision in their best interest.
Quick Review Box:
Voluntary = "I want this."
Non-voluntary = "They can't speak for themselves, so we must decide for them."
Applying the Theories
How do our "tools" handle Euthanasia?
Natural Law (Aquinas)
This is a deontological (duty-based) approach. It generally says "No" to euthanasia. Why?
- Primary Precepts: One of the main rules is the preservation of life. Euthanasia breaks this rule.
- Worship of God: Life is a gift from God; ending it is an insult to the Creator.
- The Doctrine of Double Effect: This is a tricky but important part! It says you can perform an action that has a bad side effect (like death), as long as your intention was good. Example: Giving a patient high doses of morphine to stop pain (good intention), even if it accidentally shortens their life (bad side effect).
Situation Ethics (Fletcher)
This is a teleological (result-based) approach. It asks: "What is the most loving thing to do?"
- Fletcher uses the principle of Agape (selfless love). If a person is in agony and wants to die, the most loving thing might be to help them.
- It rejects hard legalistic rules. It doesn't say "euthanasia is always right," but rather "it depends on the situation."
Common Mistake to Avoid: Don't confuse non-voluntary euthanasia with involuntary euthanasia. Involuntary means the person *didn't* want to die but was killed anyway—that isn't on your syllabus!
Section Takeaway: The debate usually boils down to Sanctity of Life (life is sacred no matter what) vs. Autonomy (I should have the right to decide what happens to my own body).
2. Business Ethics
Can a business be "good"? Business ethics looks at how companies behave toward their workers, customers, and the planet.
Key Concepts to Know
- Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR): The idea that a business has a responsibility to the community and environment, not just to making money for its owners.
- Whistle-blowing: When an employee reports wrongdoing (like illegal activity or safety risks) inside their company to the public or the authorities.
- "Good ethics is good business": The theory that being ethical actually helps a company make more profit in the long run because customers trust them more.
- Globalisation: The process by which the world’s economies and cultures become integrated. This creates ethical issues like sweatshops or environmental damage in poorer countries.
Did you know?
Some people call CSR "hypocritical window-dressing." This means they think companies only pretend to care about the environment to hide their greed and make more profit!
Applying the Theories
Kantian Ethics
Kant focuses on duty and rules. In business, he would say:
- The Categorical Imperative: You should never treat people as a "means to an end." This means workers shouldn't be used like tools just to make money; they must be treated with respect as individuals.
- Honesty: Kant believed you should never lie. Therefore, businesses must be honest in their advertising and contracts.
Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism looks for the "greatest good for the greatest number."
- Act Utilitarianism: Might say it's okay to ignore a small rule if it helps everyone’s happiness in that specific moment.
- Rule Utilitarianism: Would argue that we need general rules (like "don't lie to customers") because if everyone followed them, the whole of society would be happier.
- The Balance: A business must balance the happiness of the shareholders (who want profit) with the employees (who want fair pay) and the customers (who want good products).
Memory Aid: The "Stakeholder" Analogy
Think of a business like a bicycle wheel. The company is the center, and the "spokes" are the stakeholders (employees, customers, environment, community). If you break too many spokes to save money, the whole wheel collapses!
Section Takeaway: Business ethics asks if a company's only job is to increase profits (as some economists like Milton Friedman argued) or if they have a wider duty to human flourishing.
Quick Review: Summary of Applied Ethics
1. Euthanasia: Focuses on the clash between the Sanctity of Life (Natural Law) and the Quality of Life/Autonomy (Situation Ethics).
2. Business Ethics: Focuses on whether we should treat people as ends in themselves (Kantian Ethics) or focus on the greatest happiness for all stakeholders (Utilitarianism).
Don't worry if these applications seem tricky at first. Just keep asking yourself: "What would the founder of this theory say about this specific problem?" You're doing great!