Welcome to Normative Ethical Theories!
Hello there! Welcome to one of the most exciting parts of your Religious Studies course. In this chapter, we are going to explore Normative Ethical Theories. Essentially, these are "instruction manuals" for how to behave. Think of them as different lenses through which we can view a moral problem to decide what is "right" or "wrong."
Don't worry if some of the names or Greek words seem a bit intimidating at first. We’ll break them down together using simple examples. By the end of these notes, you’ll be able to compare these theories like a pro!
1. Natural Law (Thomas Aquinas)
Aquinas’ Natural Law is a religious and deontological theory. Deontological means it focuses on duty and rules, rather than the consequences of an action.
The Concept of Telos
Aquinas borrowed the idea of Telos from the philosopher Aristotle. Telos simply means "end," "purpose," or "goal."
Analogy: The telos of a knife is to cut. If it cuts well, it is a "good" knife. Aquinas believed humans have a telos too: to become more like God and live eternally with Him.
The Four Tiers of Law
Aquinas believed there are four levels of law that govern the universe. Think of these like a ladder:
- Eternal Law: God’s mind. These are the absolute principles by which God created the universe. Only God knows these fully.
- Divine Law: The laws God revealed to us in the Bible (like the Ten Commandments or the Sermon on the Mount).
- Natural Law: The moral law that God "wrote" into human nature. We can figure this out using our reason (intelligence).
- Human Law: The everyday laws of our society (like "don't speed"). These should ideally follow Natural Law.
The Precepts
How do we actually use Natural Law? Aquinas gave us a key precept: "Do good and avoid evil." From this, he developed five primary precepts. You can remember them with the mnemonic W.O.R.L.D.:
- Worship God
- Orderly living in society
- Reproduction
- Learning (education of children)
- Defending/Preservation of life
Secondary Precepts are the specific rules we make based on these. For example, because "Preservation of life" is a primary precept, a secondary precept would be "Do not commit murder."
Quick Review: Doctrine of Double Effect
Sometimes an action has two effects: one good and one bad. Aquinas said an action might be okay if you only intended the good effect, even if you knew the bad one might happen.
Example: A doctor giving a dying patient strong painkillers to stop their pain (good effect), even if it accidentally shortens their life (bad effect).
Key Takeaway: Natural Law is about using reason to follow the purpose God gave us.
2. Situation Ethics (Joseph Fletcher)
If Natural Law is about fixed rules, Situation Ethics is about flexibility. It is a teleological theory, meaning it looks at the "end goal." For Fletcher, that goal is always Agape.
What is Agape?
Agape is a Greek word for "unconditional love." It isn't a feeling (like liking someone); it is a will to do what is best for your neighbor, even if you don't like them. Fletcher believed that Agape is the only thing that is always "good."
The Four Working Principles
Fletcher used these four "rules of thumb" to help people make decisions:
- Pragmatism: The solution must actually work in the real world.
- Relativism: There are no fixed "always" rules. Everything is relative to love.
- Positivism: You start with a leap of faith that love is the most important thing.
- Personalism: Ethics is about people, not laws. The person comes first!
Conscience as a Verb
Fletcher had a unique view of conscience. He said it isn't a "thing" inside you (a noun) that tells you what to do. Instead, conscience is a verb—it is the *process* of making a decision creatively in the moment.
Did you know? Fletcher’s Six Propositions include the idea that "Love and justice are the same thing." Justice is just love being distributed to everyone!
Key Takeaway: In Situation Ethics, you ditch the rules and just ask: "What is the most loving thing to do in this specific situation?"
3. Kantian Ethics (Immanuel Kant)
Kant’s theory is strictly deontological and non-religious. He believed we should use reason to find our duty. For Kant, your feelings don't matter—doing your duty does.
Duty vs. Inclination
Kant believed we should act because it is our duty, not because we feel like it (inclination) or because of the results.
Example: You should tell the truth because it is right to tell the truth, not because you're afraid of getting caught in a lie.
The Categorical Imperative
Kant distinguished between two types of commands (imperatives):
- Hypothetical Imperative: "If you want X, do Y." (e.g., "If you want to pass, study.") These aren't moral.
- Categorical Imperative: "Do X." This is a moral command that applies to everyone, all the time.
To figure out if a rule is a duty, Kant used three formulations:
- Universal Law: Could you turn your action into a law for everyone? If everyone lied, the concept of "truth" would break. So, don't lie.
- End in itself: Never use people as a "means to an end" (tools). Treat people with respect as valuable individuals.
- Kingdom of Ends: Act as if you are a lawmaker in a world where everyone follows these rules.
The Three Postulates
Kant said that for morality to make sense, we have to assume (postulate) three things:
1. We are free to make choices.
2. There is immortality (life after death) to reach perfection.
3. God exists to ensure that "goodness" is eventually rewarded with happiness.
Key Takeaway: Kantian ethics is about universal rules discovered through logic. If you can't make it a law for everyone, don't do it!
4. Utilitarianism (Bentham and Mill)
Utilitarianism is teleological and secular (non-religious). It focuses on Utility—seeking the greatest balance of good over evil (pleasure over pain).
Jeremy Bentham and the Hedonic Calculus
Bentham believed humans are ruled by two masters: Pain and Pleasure. He was an Act Utilitarian, meaning he looked at every single action individually.
To measure pleasure, he created the Hedonic Calculus. It’s like a "pleasure calculator" that looks at things like:
- Intensity (How strong is the pleasure?)
- Duration (How long does it last?)
- Extent (How many people are affected?)
John Stuart Mill and Rule Utilitarianism
Mill thought Bentham's version could be used to justify bad things (like a mob hurting one person for their own pleasure). Mill focused on Rule Utilitarianism. He suggested we follow rules that generally lead to the most happiness for the common good.
Common Mistake to Avoid:
Students often think Utilitarianism is just about "doing what makes you happy." Remember: it's about the Greatest Happiness Principle—the most happiness for the greatest number of people, not just yourself!
Key Takeaway: Utilitarianism is about results. It asks: "Which choice creates the most happiness and the least pain for the most people?"
Summary Checklist
Before you finish, check if you can explain these four theories in one sentence each:
- Natural Law: Follow the telos (purpose) God gave humans through reason.
- Situation Ethics: Do whatever is the most loving (agape) thing in that moment.
- Kantian Ethics: Do your duty by following rules that could be universal laws.
- Utilitarianism: Act to create the greatest happiness for the greatest number.
Don't worry if you need to read this a few times—ethics is all about practicing these "ways of thinking" on different problems! You're doing great!