Welcome to Your Guide on Ethical Theories!
In this section of Paper 2: Religion and Ethics, we explore how people decide what is "right" and "wrong." Instead of just looking at one-off rules, we look at ethical theories—big systems of thinking that try to give us a consistent way to live. We will look at three heavyweights: Utilitarianism, Situation Ethics, and Natural Moral Law. By the end, you'll see that while some people think the outcome is all that matters, others believe the intention or the "design" of the universe is the key.
1. Utilitarianism: The "Greatest Happiness" Theory
Utilitarianism is a teleological theory (from the Greek word telos, meaning 'end' or 'goal'). This means it focuses on the consequences of an action. If the result is good, the action was right!
Key Concepts to Know
1. Utility: This basically means "usefulness." How useful is an action for producing happiness?
2. Hedonism: The belief that pleasure is the only good and pain is the only evil.
3. The Principle of Utility: Often summarized as "the greatest good for the greatest number."
The Big Thinkers: Bentham vs. Mill
Jeremy Bentham (Act Utilitarianism): Bentham believed we should treat every situation as a one-off. He developed the Hedonic Calculus (a 7-step "calculator" for happiness) to measure pleasure based on things like its intensity and duration. If an action results in a higher "score" of pleasure, do it!
J.S. Mill (Rule Utilitarianism): Mill thought Bentham was too focused on "animal" pleasures (like eating or sex). Mill distinguished between Higher Pleasures (mental and cultural, like reading poetry) and Lower Pleasures (physical, like eating a burger). He also argued we should follow general rules that usually lead to the most happiness, rather than calculating every single time.
Developments in the Theory
Don't worry if these sound like a lot—they are just different "flavors" of the same idea:
- Preference Utilitarianism: Focuses on what people prefer rather than just "happiness" (associated with Peter Singer).
- Negative Utilitarianism: Focuses on minimizing pain first, rather than maximizing pleasure.
- Ideal Utilitarianism: Argues that some things (like beauty or justice) are good even if they don't make people "happy" in the moment.
Quick Review: Utilitarianism Takeaway
Core Idea: Results matter. Happiness is the goal.
Bentham: Any pleasure counts; judge every act individually.
Mill: Quality of pleasure matters; follow general rules.
2. Situation Ethics: The "Love First" Theory
This theory emerged in the 1960s as a "middle way" between having too many strict rules (legalism) and having no rules at all (antinomianism). It was influenced by the "new morality" of a changing, more liberal society.
The Big Thinker: Joseph Fletcher
Fletcher argued that there is only one absolute rule: Agape. This is a Greek word for unconditional, selfless love—the kind of love Jesus showed. In any situation, you should do whatever is the most loving thing.
How it Works (The Four Working Principles)
To help people apply Agape, Fletcher gave us these four "tools":
1. Pragmatism: The solution must actually work in the real world.
2. Relativism: There are no "always" or "never" rules (except love). Decisions depend on the situation.
3. Positivism: You have to start with a positive leap of faith in love.
4. Personalism: People come before rules. Example: It's better to break a "no stealing" rule if it's the only way to save a starving person.
Biblical Links
Fletcher pointed to the ministry of Jesus, who often broke religious laws (like healing on the Sabbath) to help people. J.A.T. Robinson supported this, suggesting that "Man has come of age" and no longer needs a list of strict "thou shalt nots."
Memory Aid: P-R-P-P
To remember the working principles, think: Pragmatic Relatives Plove People (Pragmatism, Relativism, Positivism, Personalism).
Quick Review: Situation Ethics Takeaway
Core Idea: Love (Agape) is the only rule. Rules can be broken if it's the most loving thing to do.
Common Mistake to Avoid: Don't confuse "Agape" with romantic or "nice" feelings. It is a practical, selfless commitment to others.
3. Natural Moral Law: The "Built-In" Theory
This is a deontological theory, meaning it focuses on duty and the action itself, rather than the result. It is based on the idea that the universe has a natural order created by God.
The Big Thinker: St. Thomas Aquinas
Aquinas believed that God gave us reason so we could figure out how to live. He argued that everything has a telos (purpose). Our purpose is to "do good and avoid evil."
The Primary Precepts
Aquinas identified five things humans are "built" to do. These are the Primary Precepts:
1. Worship God
2. Ordered society (living in peace with others)
3. Reproduction
4. Learning (educating the young)
5. Defending life (preserving the self)
Secondary Precepts are specific rules we make based on these. Example: Because "Defending life" is a primary precept, we make a secondary precept that "Euthanasia is wrong."
Proportionalism: A Modern Twist
Bernard Hoose developed Proportionalism. He argued that while we should usually follow Natural Law, we can break a rule if there is a proportionate reason (a really, really good reason) to do so. This makes the theory a bit more flexible for the modern world.
Did you know?
The Catholic Church uses Natural Moral Law as the basis for many of its teachings on things like contraception and IVF today!
Quick Review: Natural Moral Law Takeaway
Core Idea: We have a natural purpose discovered through reason. Some actions are always wrong because they go against our design.
Aquinas: Follow the Primary Precepts to fulfill your purpose.
Hoose: Follow the rules unless there's a huge, "proportionate" reason not to.
Comparing the Theories: A Simple Analogy
Imagine you are a doctor with only one dose of life-saving medicine and two sick patients.
- A Utilitarian would ask: "Which patient being alive will create the most happiness for the most people?"
- A Situation Ethicist would ask: "What is the most loving thing I can do for these specific people right now?"
- A Natural Moral Law follower would look at the rules: "Is there a rule about preserving life that I must follow regardless of who the patients are?"
Don't worry if this seems tricky at first! The key is to keep asking yourself: Is this theory about the result (Utilitarianism), the love (Situation Ethics), or the design (Natural Moral Law)? Once you know that, the rest falls into place.