Welcome to Your Guide: Deontology, Virtue Ethics, and Key Scholars
Hello! Welcome to one of the most fascinating parts of your Religious Studies A Level (9RS0). In this chapter, we aren't just looking at what is "right" or "wrong." We are looking at how we decide. Is morality about following a set of unbreakable rules (Deontology), or is it about the kind of person you are becoming (Virtue Ethics)?
By the end of these notes, you'll be able to compare the legendary Immanuel Kant with the ancient Aristotle, and see how modern thinkers like W.D. Ross and Alasdair MacIntyre have updated these ideas for today. Don't worry if it seems a bit "heavy" at first—we'll break it down piece by piece!
1. Kantian Deontology: The Ethics of Duty
Deontology comes from the Greek word 'deon', which means duty. For Immanuel Kant, morality isn't about making people happy or the consequences of your actions. It’s about doing the right thing simply because it is your duty.
A. Context and Influences
Kant lived during the Enlightenment (the 18th Century), a time when thinkers started valuing reason above all else. Kant believed that because all humans are rational, we can all use our minds to figure out universal moral laws. He wasn't looking at religious commands, but at what logic tells us is right.
B. The Categorical Imperative
Kant distinguishes between two types of "imperatives" (commands):
1. Hypothetical Imperative: "If you want X, do Y." (e.g., If you want to stay out of jail, don't steal). Kant rejected this for morality because it's based on desires, not duty.
2. Categorical Imperative: "Do X." No "ifs" or "buts." This is a moral law that applies to everyone, everywhere.
The Three Formulations (Kant's "Tests" for a Rule)
Kant gave us three ways to check if a moral rule is a "duty":
- Universalisation: Ask yourself: "Would I want this rule to become a law that everyone in the world must follow?" If the world would become impossible (like if everyone lied, no one would believe anyone), then it is not a moral law.
- The End in Itself: Never treat people merely as a "means to an end" (a tool to get what you want). You must treat people as ends in themselves—valuable individuals with their own goals.
- Kingdom of Ends: Act as if you are a lawmaker in a perfect society where everyone follows these rules.
Quick Review: Think of Kant’s ethics like a Rulebook. You don't follow the rules to win a prize; you follow them because they are the rules of the game.
C. W.D. Ross and Prima Facie Duties
Don't worry if Kant's rules seem too strict! Many students find W.D. Ross much more relatable. Ross argued that Kant was wrong to say duties are absolute (unbreakable).
Ross introduced Prima Facie Duties (meaning "at first sight"). These are seven basic obligations we have, such as:
- Fidelity (keeping promises)
- Gratitude
- Justice
- Non-maleficence (not harming others)
Analogy: Imagine you promised to meet a friend for coffee (Duty of Fidelity), but on the way, you see a car accident and need to help (Duty of Beneficence). Ross says your "actual duty" in that moment is to help, even if it means breaking your "first-sight" promise.
D. Thomas Nagel
Thomas Nagel is a modern scholar who explores the "objective" versus "subjective" view. He supports the idea that there are agent-relative reasons (things that matter to me personally) and agent-neutral reasons (things that should matter to everyone, like the value of life). This helps us understand why duty feels so powerful—it’s an objective "claim" on us.
Key Takeaway: Deontology is about consistency and reason. It protects human rights by saying you can never "sacrifice" one person to save five, because that person is an "end in themselves."
2. Aristotelian Virtue Ethics: The Ethics of Character
While Kant asks "What should I do?", Aristotle asks "What kind of person should I be?" This is Virtue Ethics.
A. Eudaimonia (The Goal)
Aristotle argued that the ultimate goal for humans is Eudaimonia. This is often translated as "happiness," but it’s more like flourishing or "living well."
Analogy: Think of a plant. A flourishing plant has deep roots, green leaves, and fruit. A flourishing human is someone who is practicing their reason and virtue to reach their full potential.
B. The Golden Mean
How do we become virtuous? By finding the "just right" spot between two extremes. This is the Golden Mean.
- Deficiency (Too little): Cowardice
- The Mean (Virtue): Courage
- Excess (Too much): Rashness
Did you know? Aristotle believed you aren't born virtuous. You become virtuous by habit—practicing brave acts until you actually become a brave person.
C. Modern Scholars: MacIntyre and Foot
Virtue Ethics faded away for a while, but these two scholars brought it back in the 20th century!
Alasdair MacIntyre
MacIntyre argued that modern ethics is "in tatters" because we just argue about rules. He says we need to look at traditions and practices. He focuses on:
- Internal Goods: The skills and character you gain from doing something well (like the discipline you learn from playing an instrument).
- Narrative: Seeing your life as a story where you are trying to become a better person.
Philippa Foot
Foot argued that virtues are "correctives." They are like wood that has been planed to stay straight. Humans have natural tendencies to be selfish or lazy, so virtues like justice or temperance "correct" those tendencies and keep us on the right path.
Quick Review: Virtue Ethics is like Training for a Sport. You don't just read the rulebook (Deontology); you practice the skills every day until they become part of who you are.
3. Comparing the Two Theories
In your exam, you will likely need to compare these two. Here is a simple breakdown of the strengths and weaknesses of each.
Strengths of Deontology (Kant)
- Fairness: It treats everyone equally and provides clear, objective rules.
- Human Rights: It forbids using people or "sacrificing" the minority for the majority.
Weaknesses of Deontology
- Inflexible: It's hard to follow the rule "never lie" if a murderer is at your door asking for your friend!
- Conflicting Duties: Kant doesn't give a clear way to choose when two "absolute" rules clash.
Strengths of Virtue Ethics (Aristotle)
- Holistic: it looks at the whole person, including their emotions and life story, not just a single action.
- Flexible: It allows for different situations (the "Golden Mean" for one person might be different for another).
Weaknesses of Virtue Ethics
- Vague: It doesn't give a clear "answer" on what to do in a specific crisis (e.g., abortion or euthanasia).
- Cultural Relativism: What one culture thinks is a "virtue," another might think is a "vice."
Memory Aid: Remember the "Two C's":
- Kant = Consistency (Everyone follows the same rule).
- Aristotle = Character (Becoming the best version of you).
Final Checklist for Success
Before you finish this chapter, make sure you can explain:
- What the Categorical Imperative is (Universalisation, Ends in Themselves).
- The difference between Kant (Absolute) and Ross (Prima Facie duties).
- What Eudaimonia and the Golden Mean mean for Aristotle.
- How Foot and MacIntyre brought Virtue Ethics into the modern world.
Common Mistake to Avoid: Don't say Aristotle wants us to be "happy" in the sense of eating sweets or watching TV. Eudaimonia is a deep, long-term success of the soul, achieved through hard work and virtue!
Key Takeaway: Whether you prefer the Rules of Kant or the Character of Aristotle, both theories try to answer the most important question of all: How should we live?