Social psychology

Welcome to Social Psychology!

Ever wondered why people sometimes follow orders even when they know they’re doing something wrong? Or why we often feel a strong sense of loyalty to "our group" while being suspicious of others? That is exactly what Social Psychology is all about! We are going to explore how the people around us, our culture, and our personalities shape the way we behave. Don't worry if some of the theories seem a bit "wordy" at first—we'll break them down step-by-step.

1. Obedience: Why Do We Follow Orders?

Obedience is a type of social influence where someone acts in response to a direct order from an authority figure. In this section, we look at why people obey and what makes them "dissent" (refuse to follow orders).

Two Big Theories of Obedience

1. Agency Theory (Milgram): Milgram suggested we have two states of being:

• The Autonomous State: You feel in control and responsible for your own actions. You follow your own conscience.
• The Agentic State: You see yourself as an "agent" for an authority figure. You pass the responsibility for your actions to them. Analogy: Think of a soldier following orders; they might feel they are just a "tool" for the general.
• Moral Strain: This is the unpleasant feeling (like anxiety or shaking) we get when we are asked to do something that goes against our beliefs while in the agentic state.

2. Social Impact Theory (Latané): This theory uses a "mathematical" approach to explain social influence. It says the "impact" an authority figure has depends on three things:

• Strength (S): How much power or status the person has.
• Immediacy (I): How close they are to you (physically or in time).
• Number (N): How many authority figures there are compared to targets.

Memory Aid: Think of a light bulb in a room. The brighter the bulb (Strength), the closer it is (Immediacy), and the more bulbs there are (Number), the more light (Impact) there is on the room.

Milgram’s Famous Research and Variations

Stanley Milgram’s original study found that 65% of people would give a (fake) 450V electric shock to a stranger just because a man in a lab coat told them to. But he also did "variations" to see what would encourage dissent:

• Experiment 10 (Rundown Office Block): Obedience dropped when the study moved from Yale University to a messy office. This shows that the setting matters.
• Experiment 7 (Telephonic Instructions): When the experimenter gave orders over the phone, obedience dropped significantly. This proves proximity (closeness) is key.
• Experiment 13 (Ordinary Man): When an "ordinary man" (no lab coat) gave the orders, obedience was very low. This shows that perceived authority is vital.

Quick Review: Factors Affecting Obedience

Personality: People with an "Authoritarian Personality" are more likely to obey. They tend to be submissive to authority but harsh to those they see as "below" them.
Gender: Interestingly, Milgram found that men and women showed similar levels of obedience, though women reported higher levels of stress.
Culture: Some cultures are "collectivist" (focusing on the group) and might show different obedience levels compared to "individualist" cultures (focusing on self).
Situation: As seen in Milgram’s variations, where you are and who is giving the order changes everything!

Key Takeaway: Obedience isn't just about being a "bad person"—the situation and the way we view authority figures play a huge role in our choices.

2. Prejudice: Why Do We Dislike "Others"?

Prejudice is a pre-judgment or attitude (usually negative) toward a group of people. Discrimination is the action based on that prejudice.

Explanations of Prejudice

1. Social Identity Theory (Tajfel and Turner): This theory says we don't even need a reason to be prejudiced; just belonging to a group is enough. It happens in three stages:

• Social Categorisation: You see yourself as part of an In-group and others as part of an Out-group.
• Social Identification: You adopt the identity of the group (e.g., wearing the team's jersey).
• Social Comparison: To boost your own self-esteem, you view your In-group as "better" and the Out-group as "worse." This leads to In-group favoritism and Out-group negative bias.

2. Realistic Conflict Theory (Sherif): This theory says prejudice happens when two groups are competing for limited resources (like jobs, money, or land). This is called a "zero-sum game"—if they win, we lose!

Did you know?

Sherif found that you can reduce prejudice by giving groups a Superordinate Goal. This is a task that both groups must work together to achieve. Example: If two rival schools have to work together to fix a broken-down bus they are both sharing.

Key Takeaway: We naturally tend to favor our own "tribes," but conflict often starts when we feel we are competing for the same "prize."

3. Research Methods in Social Psychology

To study people, psychologists use specific tools. For this section, you need to understand Self-Report Data.

Questionnaires and Interviews

• Questionnaires: Written sets of questions. They can use Closed questions (yes/no, or ranked scales like 1-5) which give Quantitative data (numbers). Or they can use Open questions which give Qualitative data (detailed descriptions).
• Interviews: Face-to-face conversations.
  • Structured: Same questions for everyone in the same order.
  • Unstructured: Like a casual chat; questions change based on answers.
  • Semi-structured: A mix of both.

Sampling: How we pick participants

Random: Every person in the target population has an equal chance of being picked (like names in a hat).
Stratified: The sample reflects the proportions of people in certain sub-groups (e.g., if 60% of the school is female, 60% of your sample is female).
Volunteer: People sign themselves up.
Opportunity: Using whoever is available at the time (e.g., asking people in the cafeteria).

Handling Data

When you get your results, you need to analyze them. You should know how to calculate:

• Mean: The average (add all numbers, divide by how many there are).
• Median: The middle number in an ordered list.
• Mode: The most common number.
• Standard Deviation: A measure of how "spread out" your data is from the mean.

Thematic Analysis: This is used for Qualitative data. You look through the written answers and identify common "themes" or patterns in what people said.

Key Takeaway: How we ask the questions (methods) and who we ask (sampling) completely changes the "truth" of our findings!

4. Core Studies to Memorize

You need to know one "Classic" study and one "Contemporary" study in detail.

Classic Study: Sherif et al. (1954/1961) - Robbers Cave

The Aim: To see if competition creates prejudice and if cooperation reduces it.
The Setup: 22 boys at a summer camp were split into two groups: "The Rattlers" and "The Eagles."
The Conflict: Boys competed in tournaments for prizes. They started name-calling and burning each other's flags!
The Solution: Researchers created "emergencies" (like a blocked water pipe) that required both groups to work together. Prejudice dropped significantly.

Contemporary Study: Burger (2009) - Replicating Milgram

The Question: Would people still obey today? Burger followed stricter ethical guidelines than Milgram. He only went up to 150V (the "point of no return") and pre-screened participants for mental health issues.
The Result: Obedience levels were very similar to Milgram’s (about 70% reached 150V). This shows that time hasn't changed our tendency to obey authority.

5. Ethical Guidelines (BPS)

In the UK, the British Psychological Society (BPS) sets rules to keep participants safe. If a study is unethical, it’s a big problem!

• Informed Consent: Participants should know what they are getting into.
• Deception: You shouldn't lie to participants unless absolutely necessary.
• Right to Withdraw: They can leave at any time.
• Protection from Harm: They shouldn't be more stressed than in everyday life.

Common Mistake to Avoid: Don't just say a study is "unethical." Use the specific BPS terms like "lack of informed consent" or "failure to protect from psychological harm."

Summary Checklist

Before the exam, make sure you can:

• Explain Agency Theory and Social Impact Theory.
• Describe Milgram's variations (Ex 7, 10, 13).
• Compare Social Identity Theory and Realistic Conflict Theory.
• Evaluate Sherif’s Robbers Cave and Burger's 2009 study.
• Explain how to design a Questionnaire and carry out Thematic Analysis.

Keep practicing! Social psychology is all about the "why" behind human interaction. You've got this!