Welcome to Your Guide to Ethical Theories!
Ever wondered how people decide what is "right" or "wrong"? Is it about the consequences of our actions, the rules we follow, or just about being a loving person? In this chapter of Paper 2: Religion and Ethics, we will explore three famous ways of answering these questions: Utilitarianism, Situation Ethics, and Natural Moral Law.
Don’t worry if some of these names sound a bit intimidating at first. We’re going to break them down step-by-step with simple examples. Let’s dive in!
1. Utilitarianism: The "Happiness" Theory
Utilitarianism is a teleological theory (from the Greek word telos, meaning 'end' or 'purpose'). This means it focuses on the results or consequences of an action. If an action results in happiness, it's usually considered "good."
The Big Idea: "The Greatest Good for the Greatest Number"
The core of this theory is the Principle of Utility. It suggests we should always act in a way that creates the most pleasure and the least pain for the most people.
Key Thinkers: Bentham and Mill
Jeremy Bentham (Act Utilitarianism): Bentham believed we are all ruled by two "sovereign masters": Pain and Pleasure. He was a hedonist (someone who seeks pleasure). He created the Hedonic Calculus—a list of seven factors to help calculate how much pleasure an action would cause. For example, how long will the pleasure last? How certain is it?
Think of Bentham as a mathematician: he wants to count up the "units" of happiness.
John Stuart Mill (Rule Utilitarianism): Mill worried that Bentham's theory could allow "bad" pleasures (like a mob hurting one person). He distinguished between Higher Pleasures (things that use the mind, like reading or art) and Lower Pleasures (physical things, like eating or sleeping). He argued that "It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied."
Think of Mill as a librarian: he cares more about the quality of the pleasure than just the amount.
Modern Variations
Preference Utilitarianism: Instead of focusing on "pleasure," this looks at what people actually prefer. This is more inclusive because everyone’s "happiness" looks different.
Negative Utilitarianism: This focuses on minimizing suffering first, rather than maximizing pleasure.
Quick Review Box:
- Act Utilitarianism: Looks at every situation individually (Bentham).
- Rule Utilitarianism: Sets general rules that usually lead to the best results (Mill).
- Relativist: There are no fixed "thou shalt nots"; it depends on the situation.
Takeaway: Utilitarianism is practical and aims to make the world a happier place, but it can be hard to predict the future, and it might be unfair to the minority.
2. Situation Ethics: The "Love" Theory
In the 1960s, a thinker named Joseph Fletcher (and Bishop J.A.T. Robinson) felt that traditional religious rules were becoming too "stiff." They developed Situation Ethics as a "middle way" between having too many rules and having no rules at all.
The Only Rule: Agape Love
Fletcher argued that there is only one absolute law: Agape. This is a Greek word for unconditional, selfless love. It’s not a feeling or "romance"; it’s a choice to do what is best for your neighbor, even if you don't like them.
How it Works
Fletcher said that in any situation, you should ask: "What is the most loving thing to do?" If a rule (like "don't lie") gets in the way of love, you should break the rule.
Example: If you were hiding a friend from a dangerous person, the "loving" thing to do would be to lie about where they are. In this situation, lying becomes "right."
Biblical Inspiration
Fletcher pointed to the ministry of Jesus. Jesus often broke the strict religious laws of his time (like healing people on the Sabbath day) because he believed people and love were more important than rules. "The Sabbath was made for man, not man for the Sabbath."
Did you know?
Situation Ethics was part of the "New Morality" in the 1960s. It reflected the social changes of that decade, where people started questioning traditional authority.
Takeaway: Situation Ethics is flexible and follows the example of Jesus, but critics worry it’s too subjective. What one person thinks is "loving" might be different from what another person thinks!
3. Natural Moral Law: The "Purpose" Theory
Unlike the first two theories, Natural Moral Law (NML) is absolutist and legalist. This means it believes some things are always right or wrong, regardless of the consequences.
The Thinker: Thomas Aquinas
Aquinas was a 13th-century monk. He believed God gave humans reason (the ability to think). By using our reason to look at the world, we can figure out our telos (our purpose). If we fulfill our purpose, we are "good."
The Primary Precepts
Aquinas identified five fundamental rules that all humans should follow to live a good life. You can remember them with the mnemonic P.O.W.E.R.:
1. Preservation of life (Stay alive!)
2. Ordered society (Live peacefully with others)
3. Worship God (Recognize your creator)
4. Education (Learn and grow)
5. Reproduction (Keep the human race going)
Primary vs. Secondary Precepts
Primary Precepts are the big, unchangeable rules (like "Protect life").
Secondary Precepts are the specific applications. For example, if we must protect life, then "murder is wrong" is a secondary precept. These can sometimes change depending on the context, but the Primary Precepts never do.
Modern Adaptation: Proportionalism
A modern thinker named Bernard Hoose suggested a tweak. He argued that NML is a great guide, but if there is a proportionate reason (a really, really good reason), it might be okay to break a rule.
Analogy: NML is like a GPS. It gives you the best route. Proportionalism says it's okay to take a detour if there's a massive roadblock ahead.
Takeaway: NML provides clear, firm rules and a sense of purpose. However, it can seem old-fashioned or "un-biological" to some people today who don't agree with Aquinas's view of human purpose.
Summary Comparison
To keep these straight, ask yourself what each theory "worships":
- Utilitarianism: Worships Happiness (Results-based).
- Situation Ethics: Worships Love (Person-centered).
- Natural Moral Law: Worships Reason and Purpose (Rule-based).
Common Mistake to Avoid: Don't confuse Agape with Utility. Utility wants the most "smiles" (pleasure); Agape wants the most "well-being" (selfless love). Sometimes they lead to the same choice, but for different reasons!
Don't worry if this seems tricky at first! Ethical theories are like different pairs of glasses—they each help you see the world's problems in a different way. The more you practice "putting on" each pair of glasses, the easier it will become to evaluate them in your exam.