Welcome to Topic A: Social Psychology!
Ever wondered why we sometimes follow the crowd, even when we know they're wrong? Or why people obey orders from a boss, even if those orders feel uncomfortable? That is exactly what Social Psychology explores! This chapter looks at how our behavior is influenced by the people around us, the groups we belong to, and the society we live in.
Don’t worry if some of these ideas feel a bit "big" at first. We’re going to break them down into bite-sized pieces with plenty of examples to help you along the way!
1. Understanding Obedience
Obedience happens when you follow a direct order from someone you see as an authority figure. Unlike conformity (where you follow a group), obedience is about responding to power.
A. Agency Theory (Milgram)
Stanley Milgram suggested we exist in two different "states":
1. The Autonomous State: You feel responsible for your own actions. You choose what to do based on your own conscience.
2. The Agentic State: You see yourself as an "agent" for someone else. You follow their orders and feel that they are responsible for what happens, not you.
The switch from being autonomous to agentic is called the Agentic Shift. This often happens because we feel Moral Strain—that uncomfortable feeling when an order goes against our values, but we feel we must obey.
B. Social Power Theory
This theory explains why people have influence over us. There are different types of power:
Reward Power: They can give you something you want (like a bonus).
Coercive Power: They can punish you.
Legitimate Power: Their role gives them the right to tell you what to do (like a police officer).
Expert Power: They know more than you do (like a doctor).
Referent Power: You admire them and want to be like them.
Quick Review: Think of a teacher. They have Legitimate Power (their job), Expert Power (their knowledge), and sometimes Coercive Power (detentions!).
2. Milgram’s Famous Research (1963)
Milgram wanted to know how far people would go in obeying an authority figure. In his original study, participants were told to give (fake) electric shocks to a "learner" every time they got a memory task wrong. The shocks went from 15V up to a deadly 450V.
The Variations (Why the Situation Matters)
Milgram ran different versions to see what changed the level of obedience:
Experiment 10: Rundown Office Block
The original study was at Yale University (very prestigious). When moved to a messy office in a different town, obedience dropped because the setting felt less "official."
Experiment 7: Telephonic Instructions
The experimenter gave orders over the phone instead of being in the room. Obedience dropped significantly. Some participants even "cheated" by giving lower shocks than they were told to!
Experiment 13: Ordinary Man Gives Orders
When an "ordinary" person (not wearing a lab coat) gave the orders instead of the experimenter, obedience fell. We are less likely to obey if we don't perceive the person as a legitimate authority.
Key Takeaway: Obedience isn't just about who you are; it's heavily influenced by situational factors like where you are and how close the authority figure is.
3. Factors Affecting Obedience and Dissent
Why do some people say "No"? This is called Dissent or resistance.
1. Individual Differences (Personality and Gender): Some researchers believe an "Authoritarian Personality" makes people more likely to obey. Regarding Gender, Milgram found that women reported higher stress but showed similar obedience levels to men.
2. Situation: As we saw in Milgram's variations, things like "Proximity" (closeness) and "Location" change everything.
3. Culture: Some cultures are Individualistic (valuing independence) and might show more dissent. Others are Collectivistic (valuing the group and authority) and might show higher obedience.
4. Conformity: Following the Crowd
Conformity is changing your behavior to fit in with a group. There are three types:
Compliance: You go along with the group in public but disagree in private (trying to fit in).
Identification: You change your behavior because you value the group and want to be part of it.
Internalisation: You genuinely believe the group is right. You change your mind both publicly and privately.
Why do we conform?
Normative Social Influence (NSI): The desire to be liked. We conform to avoid looking foolish.
Informational Social Influence (ISI): The desire to be right. We conform because we think the group has better information than we do.
Asch’s Research (1951)
Asch showed participants lines of different lengths. Even when the answer was obvious, many participants conformed to a group of actors who gave the wrong answer. In his 1952 and 1956 variations, he found that:
Group Size: Conformity increases with group size, but only up to a point (usually 3 people).
Unanimity: If just one other person disagrees with the group, conformity drops massively!
5. Minority Influence (Moscovici)
Can one or two people change the minds of a large group? Yes! But Moscovici (1976) said the minority must have three things:
1. Consistency: They must keep saying the same thing over time.
2. Commitment: They must show they are willing to suffer for their cause (the "augmentation principle").
3. Flexibility: They shouldn't be too rigid; they need to be prepared to compromise slightly.
Memory Aid: Remember CCF — Consistency, Commitment, Flexibility!
6. Research Methods in Social Psychology
How do we study these things? Usually through Self-Report Data.
Questionnaires and Interviews
Questionnaires: Written questions. They can use Closed Questions (Yes/No, or ranked scales like 1-5) which give Quantitative Data (numbers), or Open Questions which give Qualitative Data (detailed descriptions).
Interviews: Can be Structured (fixed questions), Semi-structured (some fixed questions with room to follow up), or Unstructured (more like a conversation).
Researcher Effects: Be careful! Sometimes the person asking the questions can accidentally influence the answer (e.g., through their tone of voice or body language).
Sampling Techniques
How do we pick people for our studies?
Random: Everyone has an equal chance (like pulling names from a hat).
Stratified: The sample reflects the proportions of people in the target population.
Volunteer: People sign themselves up (often through an ad).
Opportunity: Using whoever is available at the time (like asking people in a mall).
7. Data Analysis and Ethics
When we get our results, we need to analyze them!
Quantitative Analysis (Numbers)
Measures of Central Tendency:
\( \text{Mean} = \frac{\text{Sum of all scores}}{\text{Total number of scores}} \)
Median: The middle score when lined up in order.
Mode: The most common score.
Measures of Dispersion:
Range: The difference between the highest and lowest score.
Standard Deviation: How much scores spread out around the mean.
Qualitative Analysis (Words)
We use Thematic Analysis. This involves looking through the data (like interview transcripts) to find recurring "themes" or patterns.
Ethics (BPS Guidelines)
Psychologists must follow rules to keep people safe:
Informed Consent: Participants should know what they are getting into.
Deception: You shouldn't lie to participants unless absolutely necessary.
Right to Withdraw: They can leave at any time.
Protection from Harm: They shouldn't be more stressed than they would be in everyday life.
8. Core Studies to Know
Classic Study: Moscovici et al. (1969)
He showed participants blue slides that looked green. When a minority of actors consistently called them green, the majority started to agree with them. This proved that consistency is key for minority influence.
Contemporary Study: Burger (2009)
Burger replicated Milgram’s study but made it more ethical. He stopped the shocks at 150V (the "point of no return"). He found that obedience levels were almost identical to Milgram’s results from the 1960s! People still obey today.
Common Mistake: Students often think Burger used 450V shocks. He did NOT. He stopped at 150V to protect the participants' mental health.
Quick Summary Takeaway
Social Influence includes Obedience (authority), Conformity (the majority), and Minority Influence (the few). Our behavior in these situations depends on the Situation (location, proximity), our Personality, and our Culture. To study this, we use questionnaires and interviews, always making sure to follow Ethical Guidelines like those from the BPS.