Reading Classical Chinese: Master the Exploration of Classics!

Hello everyone! Welcome to the world of "Classical Chinese" (Kanbun). When you hear "Classical Chinese," many of you might think, "It’s full of Kanji, it looks so difficult..." But in reality, Classical Chinese is like a "puzzle you solve by following specific rules." Once you learn those rules, you'll realize it’s actually much simpler and more logical than modern Japanese.

In these notes, I’ll break down the essentials for reading Classical Chinese, focusing on key sentence patterns (kuho) that are frequently tested. It might feel tough at first, but if you take it one step at a time, you will definitely be able to read it!

1. Basic Rules of Reading Classical Chinese (The Mechanics of Kundoku)

The process of reading Classical Chinese as Japanese is called "Kundoku" (reading by interpretation). First, let’s organize the "tools" we need for this.

(1) Kaeriten (Reversion Marks): A Map for Reading Order

These are the symbols written to the bottom left of the Kanji. Thanks to these, we can change the Chinese word order into a Japanese word order.

  • Re-ten: Read from the character below to the character above, skipping back by only one. (Imagine it like a V-shape jump!)
  • Ichi-Ni-San points (一・二・三点): Skip the "Ni" (二) to read the "Ichi" (一), then return to the "Ni." If there is a "San" (三), return to it after the "Ni."
  • Jo-Chu-Ka points (上・中・下点): Used when you need to jump across "Ichi-Ni-San" points. These are markers for those extra-large jumps.

(2) Okurigana (Auxiliary Readings) and Kakikudashibun (Rendered Text)

The small Katakana written to the bottom right of the Kanji are "Okurigana." When you combine these with the Kanji to form a Japanese sentence, it is called a "Kakikudashibun."

【Pro Tip!】 Rules for Kakikudashibun
1. Keep the Kanji as Kanji.
2. Change particles (like ~o, ~ni) and auxiliary verbs (like ~nari, ~zu) into Hiragana.
3. Do not write "Okiji" (filler characters that aren't read).

Section Summary:

Kaeriten show the "order of reading," and Okurigana show the "connections as Japanese." The first step is to get used to reading this "map."

2. Mastering Classical Chinese Grammar (Kuho)

At the "Exploration of Classics" level, it is essential to memorize specific character combinations known as "Kuho." Think of these like the "sentence structures" in English.

(1) Negation (Hitei): "Is not," "Does not"

The standard is "不 (zu)". It is placed before a verb.
Example: "不食 (kurawazu)" = Do not eat.
You also use "非 (niarazu)" (is not) and "無 (nashi)" (does not exist/there is none) depending on the context.

(2) Question/Rhetorical Questions (Gimon/Hango): The Most Important Point!

This is the most common topic on tests!
① Question: "~ ka?" (A genuine inquiry).
② Rhetorical Question: "How could it be that ~? (No, it is not ~)." (Used for strong emphasis).

【Tips for Distinguishing】
Be careful when you see characters like "何 (nani/nanzo)," "安 (izukunzo)," or "豈 (ani)." If the sentence ends in "~n (ya)," it is often a rhetorical question. You can interpret this as "emphasizing the opposite meaning."

(3) Causative (Shieki): "Make/let someone do ~"

Characters like "使 (shimu)" or "令 (shimu)" are used.
Example: "使レ人行 (hito wo shite yukashimu)" = Make a person go.
Carefully identify the structure: who is being made to do what?

(4) Passive (Ukemi): "Be done to"

Characters like "見 (ru)" or "被 (ru)" are used. You can see these in modern Japanese words too, like "higai" (suffering damage) or "hakken" (discovery/being seen).

Fun Fact:

We use "rhetorical questions" in daily conversation too! Phrases like, "Who would ever do something like that? (Meaning: No one would.)" are common. Authors of Classical Chinese used this structure when they wanted to convey their arguments strongly!

3. Important Vocabulary and "Okiji"

Some Kanji have meanings different from modern Japanese. Knowing these will boost your reading speed.

(1) Frequently Used Kanji

  • "夫 (sore)"： Appears at the beginning of a sentence as a signal to start a discussion (like "Now, regarding...").
  • "予 (ware)"： I/me.
  • "如 (gotoshi)"： Is like... (used for comparisons).
  • "卒 (tsuini)"： Finally, at last.

(2) Okiji (Filler Characters)

Characters like "而," "於," "焉," and "矣" only add nuance and do not need to be read as part of the Japanese sentence. You can ignore them when writing a "Kakikudashibun," but they help shape the rhythm and feel of the text.

4. Steps to Improve Reading Comprehension

Here is a practice routine for reading Classical Chinese smoothly:

Step 1: Focus on the Okurigana.
First, look at the Okurigana to identify where the verbs and adjectives are.

Step 2: Organize the order using Kaeriten.
Like arranging puzzle pieces, keep the Japanese word order (Subject → Object → Verb) in mind.

Step 3: Identify the Kuho.
Apply the patterns you’ve memorized: "Oh, there's a 'Fu' (不), so it's a negation!" or "There's a 'Nani' (何), so maybe it's a rhetorical question!"

Step 4: Think about the context (the story).
Classical Chinese texts are often historical or instructional. If you imagine "Who is speaking to whom, and what are they trying to convey?" the content will sink in much faster.

5. Common Mistakes (Watch Out!)

× Reading every Kanji with its Onyomi (Sino-Japanese reading).
Classical Chinese should be read via "Kundoku." Practice reading characters like "行" as "yuku" instead of "kou"—treat them as native Japanese words.

× Forgetting to change particles into Hiragana.
When writing a "Kakikudashibun," a common mistake is leaving particles (no, ni, wo, wa) as Kanji. Always make sure to write them in Hiragana!

Key Takeaway:

Classical Chinese reading is the product of "Kaeriten rules" × "Major Kuho patterns." The shortcut is to read the example sentences in your textbook aloud repeatedly until that rhythm becomes second nature!

It might feel hard at first, but it will get easier. As you practice, you’ll have more "Aha! I know this pattern!" moments. Good luck!