How far was Hitler’s foreign policy to blame for the outbreak of war in Europe in 1939?

The Road to War: How Far Was Hitler's Foreign Policy to Blame for the Outbreak of War in Europe in 1939?

Hello Historians! This is one of the most important and complex questions in IGCSE History. We are analyzing the causes of the Second World War. Was it all Hitler's fault? Or did the weakness of other countries contribute?

In these notes, we will break down Hitler’s aggressive steps, one by one, and understand how they led Europe into disaster in September 1939. Let’s get started!

1. Hitler’s Foreign Policy Aims: The Blueprint for Aggression

When Hitler came to power in 1933, he had three main goals that drove his foreign policy. These were not secrets; he laid them out clearly, most famously in his book Mein Kampf.

Key Aims of Hitler (The 3 A's)

• Abolish the Treaty of Versailles (TOV): Hitler hated the TOV, viewing it as a humiliation imposed on Germany (a "Diktat"). He wanted to scrap the restrictions on the German military, regain lost territory, and restore national pride.
• Achieve a Greater Germany: This meant uniting all German-speaking people (the Volksdeutsche) living in different countries, such as Austria and Czechoslovakia, into one massive German Reich.
• Acquire Lebensraum (Living Space): This was the most dangerous aim. Hitler believed the German people needed more land for settlement, industry, and farming. This land, he decided, would be taken by force from the East—specifically, from Poland and the Soviet Union.

2. Defying Versailles: The Early Steps (1933–1936)

Rearmament (From 1933 Onwards)

The Treaty of Versailles had strictly limited the German army to 100,000 men and banned military aircraft and submarines. Hitler ignored these rules almost immediately.

• 1933: Germany withdrew from the Disarmament Conference and the League of Nations.
• 1935: Hitler publicly announced large-scale rearmament, introducing conscription (compulsory military service).
• Did you know? Britain even helped Hitler undermine the TOV by signing the Anglo-German Naval Agreement (1935), allowing Germany to build a fleet up to 35% the size of the British navy. This showed Hitler the Allies were not united in stopping him.

The Saar Plebiscite (1935)

This region had been controlled by the League of Nations since 1920. In 1935, a vote (plebiscite) was held to decide its future.

• Result: Over 90% voted to return to Germany.
• Consequence: While legal under the TOV, it was a huge propaganda victory for Hitler and gave him confidence to take bigger risks.

Remilitarisation of the Rhineland (March 1936)

The Rhineland was an area of Germany bordering France and Belgium that the TOV had forbidden Germany to place troops in (it had to be demilitarised).

This was a huge gamble. Hitler marched 22,000 troops into the Rhineland.

• Why it was a risk: The German army was weak. If France had mobilized, Hitler would have had to retreat.
• Why it succeeded: France was preoccupied with political issues and refused to act without British support. Britain felt Germany was just "walking into its own backyard" and did not intervene.
• Key Takeaway: Hitler had successfully broken the TOV for the second major time. This victory encouraged him greatly.

3. Testing Ground and Alliances (1936–1937)

The Spanish Civil War (1936–1939)

Hitler and Mussolini backed the Nationalist General Franco against the Republican government in Spain.

• Hitler’s role: He sent the German air force (the Luftwaffe) to provide military support.
• Importance: This was a crucial opportunity to test out new weapons and tactics (like the infamous bombing of Guernica). It also strengthened the relationship between Hitler and Mussolini.

The Rome-Berlin Axis (1936) and Anti-Comintern Pact (1936/37)

Hitler began forming formal partnerships with other aggressive, anti-communist nations.

• Rome-Berlin Axis (1936): An agreement between Germany and Fascist Italy (led by Mussolini). This created the 'Axis' power bloc.
• Anti-Comintern Pact (1937): A further agreement signed by Germany, Japan, and later Italy. Its stated aim was to combat international communism (the Comintern was the Soviet-led Communist International). This signaled cooperation between the three powers against the USSR.

Key Takeaway: By 1937, Hitler was no longer isolated. He had powerful friends (Italy and Japan) and was openly rearming and testing his military.

4. The Climax of Aggression: Anschluss and Czechoslovakia (1938)

Anschluss with Austria (March 1938)

Anschluss means 'union.' Uniting Germany and Austria had been forbidden by the TOV.

Hitler pressured the Austrian Chancellor, Schuschnigg, to accept Nazi appointments. When Schuschnigg tried to hold a referendum to ask Austrians if they wanted to join Germany, Hitler invaded.

• The Invasion: German troops marched into Austria, met with widespread public support.
• Result: A rigged plebiscite (vote) held after the invasion showed 99.7% of Austrians supported the union.
• Allied Reaction: Britain and France again did nothing. They considered Austria a German-speaking country and felt perhaps the union was inevitable or even justified (in line with self-determination).

The Crisis over Czechoslovakia (The Sudetenland, 1938)

After Austria, Hitler turned his attention to Czechoslovakia, which had a strong army and was allied with France and the USSR. However, three million German speakers lived in the Sudetenland region.

Hitler demanded this area be handed over to Germany, claiming the Sudeten Germans were being persecuted.

The Munich Agreement (September 1938)

To resolve the Sudetenland crisis, a meeting was held in Munich between Hitler (Germany), Mussolini (Italy), Chamberlain (Britain), and Daladier (France). Czechoslovakia was not invited.

• Decision: The Sudetenland was immediately handed over to Germany.
• Chamberlain’s Claim: He returned to Britain claiming he had achieved "Peace for our time."
• Consequence: Czechoslovakia lost its vital mountain defenses and industrial capacity, making it vulnerable. Appeasement had reached its peak, and Britain and France had sacrificed an ally.

The End of Czechoslovakia (March 1939)

Just six months after Munich, Hitler broke all his promises. He invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia and took control of Prague.

This was a turning point. Unlike the Sudetenland, there was no pretext of uniting German speakers; this was pure aggression. Chamberlain realised Appeasement had failed. Britain and France finally issued a guarantee to protect Poland—the next likely target.

5. The Final Gamble: Poland and the Outbreak of War (1939)

The Polish Crisis

Hitler demanded that Poland hand over the city of Danzig and the Polish Corridor (a strip of land separating Germany from East Prussia). Poland refused, relying on the Anglo-French guarantee.

The Nazi-Soviet Pact (August 1939)

This was the most shocking diplomatic event of the period. For years, Hitler (Nazi) and Stalin (Communist) had been sworn enemies. Yet, they signed a non-aggression treaty.

• Terms: Publicly, they agreed not to attack each other. Privately, they agreed to divide Poland between them.
• Hitler’s Motive: To ensure that when he invaded Poland, he would avoid a war on two fronts. He calculated that with the USSR neutral, Britain and France would back down again.
• Stalin’s Motive: To gain time to rearm and to acquire territory (the eastern half of Poland). He did not trust Britain or France to stand up to Hitler.

The Outbreak of War (September 1939)

Convinced the Allies would not honour their promise, Hitler invaded Poland on 1 September 1939.

Britain and France had guaranteed Polish independence. On 3 September 1939, having received no promise of withdrawal from Hitler, both countries declared war on Germany. The Second World War had begun.

6. Key Takeaway: Synthesis and Blame

The core question is: How far was Hitler's foreign policy to blame? The answer is: Very far, but not entirely.

Argument 1: Hitler was Primarily to Blame (Direct Cause)

Hitler’s foreign policy was based on clear, aggressive goals (the 3 A's) that required war to achieve (*Lebensraum*).

• He initiated every crisis (Rhineland, Anschluss, Czechia, Poland).
• He pursued rearmament, making war inevitable.
• By signing the Nazi-Soviet Pact, he eliminated the last major obstacle to invading Poland, proving his intent was always military conquest, not just revision of the TOV.

Argument 2: Others Share the Blame (Contributing Factors)

Hitler was only able to take these massive risks because the international context allowed him to.

• Treaty of Versailles: The harsh terms provided Hitler with popular excuses for his actions.
• The League of Nations: Its total failure in the 1930s (Abyssinia/Manchuria) proved to Hitler that collective security was dead.
• Appeasement: Chamberlain and Daladier’s policy allowed Germany to grow stronger, absorb key strategic areas (Austria, Sudetenland), and boost German military confidence without firing a shot. By March 1939, it was too late to stop him without a major war.