Welcome to the Frontier: Consolidation and Retrenchment
After decades of marching north and fighting battles, the Roman Empire reached a turning point in Britain. Instead of trying to conquer every last inch of the island, the Emperors decided it was time to "draw a line in the sand" (or rather, the mud!). In this chapter, we explore why and how the Romans moved from expansion (taking more land) to retrenchment (pulling back to a stronger position) and consolidation (strengthening what they already had).
We will focus on the period from \(AD 85\) to \(c. AD 128\), looking at the decisions made by Emperors Domitian, Trajan, and Hadrian. Don't worry if these names feel new—we’ll break down exactly what each one did and the evidence we have for it!
1. What are Retrenchment and Consolidation?
Before we dive into the history, let's look at these two key terms. Think of them like a sports team:
- Retrenchment: This is like a team that has pushed too far forward and is getting tired or exposed. They "pull back" to a more defensive position where they are harder to beat.
- Consolidation: This is when the team stops trying to score new points for a moment and focuses on making their current defense and teamwork perfect.
In Britain, the Romans realized that holding the deep Highlands of Scotland was too expensive and required too many soldiers. They decided it was better to have a strong, fixed border than a messy, constant war in the mountains.
2. Domitian and Trajan: The Pull-Back
After the governor Agricola was recalled to Rome in \(AD 84\), the Roman policy changed significantly.
Domitian (\(AD 81–96\))
Under Emperor Domitian, the Romans began to abandon the forts in the far north of Scotland.
- The Evidence: The Inchtuthil fort plan is a vital piece of archaeological evidence. It was a massive legionary fortress intended to be the "HQ" for the conquest of Scotland, but it was abandoned before it was even finished! The Romans even buried hundreds of thousands of iron nails so the local tribes couldn't use them for weapons.
- The Literary View: The historian Tacitus (in his book Agricola) was very critical of this. He famously said that Britain was "completely conquered and immediately let go." Remember, Tacitus was Agricola’s son-in-law, so he was biased! He wanted to make Domitian look weak and Agricola look like a hero.
Trajan (\(AD 98–117\))
Trajan continued this policy of staying further south. During his reign, the Romans focused on a line across Northern England known as The Stanegate.
Key Takeaway:
Retrenchment wasn't a sign of "losing." It was a strategic choice to move soldiers to other parts of the Empire (like the Danube) where they were needed more.
3. The Stanegate: The First Real Frontier
Before the Great Wall was built, there was The Stanegate. This was a Roman road running between Carlisle and Corbridge.
- Along this road, the Romans built a series of forts to monitor movement.
- Vindolanda is the most famous site here. The Vindolanda fort plan shows us a busy, working military base.
- The Evidence: The Vindolanda tablets (wooden postcards/letters) give us a "behind-the-scenes" look at frontier life. We see accounts for pepper and beer, and even an invitation to a birthday party! This proves that the "frontier" was becoming a settled, organized community, not just a temporary war zone.
4. Hadrian’s Wall: The Big Barrier (\(AD 122\) onwards)
Emperor Hadrian visited Britain in \(AD 122\). He decided that the Stanegate wasn't enough. He wanted a permanent, physical symbol of Roman power. This became Hadrian’s Wall.
Features of the Wall
It wasn't just a simple wall; it was a complex military system. You should be able to identify these features:
- Milecastles: Small forts built every Roman mile (like Milecastle 38).
- Turrets: Small observation towers between milecastles.
- Forts: Large bases built into the wall (like Halton Chesters) to house hundreds of soldiers.
- The Vallum: A massive ditch and mound system running behind the wall. This marked the "military zone" and kept civilians away from the back of the wall.
Why build it? (Functions)
According to the Scriptores Historiae Augustae (a collection of biographies), Hadrian built the wall "to divide the Romans from the barbarians."
1. Defense: To stop small raiding parties from the north.
2. Control: To monitor who was coming in and out (and probably to charge taxes on traders!).
3. Propaganda: To show everyone that the Roman Empire had a clear, powerful limit. It was a massive "Keep Out" sign.
5. Working with the Sources (AO3 Skills)
When you write your essays, you must use the prescribed evidence. Here are some quick links to remember:
- The A. Platorius Nepos Inscription: This stone slab confirms that the governor Platorius Nepos was the one building the wall under Hadrian’s orders.
- The Caerleon Stone of Trajan: Shows Trajan’s work in strengthening existing legionary bases in the south.
- The York Commemorative Tablet: Evidence of Trajan’s building work, showing that consolidation happened in the cities, not just the walls.
Common Mistake to Avoid: Don't think of the Wall as a "border" in the modern sense (like a fence between two countries). It was a controlled zone where the Romans could manage the people living on both sides.
Quick Review: Key Points
1. Context: Rome stopped trying to conquer Scotland because it was too difficult and expensive.
2. Domitian: Started the pull-back (retrenchment). Tacitus hated him for it.
3. The Stanegate: A road-based frontier used before Hadrian’s Wall.
4. Hadrian: Built the famous \(73\)-mile stone wall to "separate" Romans from barbarians.
5. Life on the Frontier: Archaeological finds like the Vindolanda tablets show us that the frontier was a place of trade, family life, and bureaucracy, not just fighting.
Key Takeaway Summary:
Between \(AD 85\) and \(128\), Britain went from being a "frontier of conquest" to a "frontier of control." The Romans shifted from trying to own the whole island to perfecting the parts they already held.