Types of evidence: literary, epigraphic, numismatic and archaeological

Introduction to the Toolkit of History

Welcome! In Ancient History, we are a bit like detectives. We don't have time machines, so we rely on "clues" left behind by people who lived thousands of years ago. These clues are what we call ancient sources. For your OCR A Level (H407), you need to understand the four main types of evidence used to reconstruct the past: literary, epigraphic, numismatic, and archaeological.

Understanding these categories is the first step toward mastering AO3 (using and evaluating ancient sources), which makes up \(40\%\) of your total grade. Don't worry if these terms sound technical—by the end of these notes, you’ll see they are just fancy names for things we use every day, like books, signs, coins, and buildings!

Note: To learn how to use these sources to build an argument, see the next chapter on "Assessing the utility of a set of ancient sources."

1. Literary Evidence: The Written Word

Literary evidence refers to anything written by an ancient author. This includes histories, biographies, letters, plays, and even poetry. In your syllabus, this includes famous names like Thucydides, Herodotus, Tacitus, and Suetonius.

What makes it useful?

• Narrative: It tells us a story. It explains why things happened (e.g., the causes of the Peloponnesian War or the motivations of Nero).
• Perspective: It gives us the opinions and values of the time. For example, Aristophanes' comedies show us what ordinary Athenians found funny or frustrating.

What are the challenges?

• Bias: Ancient writers weren't always "objective." Suetonius loved gossip about the emperors, and Thucydides had strong views on Athenian democracy.
• The "Spartan Mirage": Because Spartans didn't write much about themselves, we rely on outsiders like Xenophon or Plutarch, who might have exaggerated how "perfect" Sparta was.

Quick Tip: Always ask, "Who was the author writing for, and what was their goal?"

2. Epigraphic Evidence: Inscriptions

Epigraphic evidence (or epigraphy) is the study of inscriptions. These are words carved into hard surfaces like stone, marble, or bronze.

Examples from your syllabus:

• The Chalkis Decree: An inscription showing how Athens controlled its allies.
• The Res Gestae Divi Augusti: A massive inscription where Augustus lists his own achievements.
• Tombstones: Like the one for the cavalryman Longinus Sdapeze in Roman Britain.

What makes it useful?

• Official Records: These are often "primary" documents—they are the actual laws or decrees passed at the time.
• Durability: Unlike paper (papyrus), stone lasts. We see exactly what was written without centuries of monks copying it out and potentially making mistakes.

What are the challenges?

• Propaganda: Just because it's carved in stone doesn't mean it's the 100% truth. The Res Gestae was written by Augustus to make himself look good!
• Fragmentary: Often, the stone is broken, leaving us with missing words or sentences.

3. Numismatic Evidence: The Power of Coins

Numismatic evidence is the study of coins. In the ancient world, coins were more than just money; they were a way for a ruler to send a message to every person in the empire.

Examples from your syllabus:

• Gold coin of Philip II: Used to show Macedonian wealth and power.
• Denarii of the Late Republic: Politicians like Brutus or Julius Caesar put their own faces or symbols (like the "Ides of March" cap) on coins to gain support.
• Imperial Coinage: Roman emperors used coins to advertise their pietas (religious devotion) or military victories.

What makes it useful?

• Dating: Coins often have the names of rulers or specific years, helping us date archaeological sites.
• Mass Media: Coins reached everyone—from the richest senator to the poorest soldier. They show us the "official version" of history.

Did you know? Coins are like "propaganda in your pocket." An emperor could tell the whole empire he had won a war just by minting a new coin with a victory symbol!

4. Archaeological Evidence: Physical Remains

Archaeological evidence includes the physical "stuff" left behind: buildings, ruins, pottery, weapons, and entire cities.

Examples from your syllabus:

• The Acropolis in Athens: Shows the wealth and artistic skill of the Periclean age.
• Hadrian’s Wall: Physical proof of how the Romans defended the frontier in Britain.
• Fishbourne Roman Palace: A massive home that shows how "Romanised" some local British leaders became.
• The Serpent Column: A bronze monument dedicated after the Greek victory over Persia.

What makes it useful?

• Reality Check: It shows us what was actually built, rather than just what writers said was built.
• Daily Life: Objects like the Vindolanda Tablets (wooden writing tablets) or military equipment show us what life was really like for soldiers and common people.

What are the challenges?

• Interpretation: A pile of stones doesn't speak. Historians have to "interpret" what a building was used for, which can lead to different theories.

Summary Table: The L-E-N-A Mnemonic

To remember the four types of evidence, just think of the name LENA:

Quick Review: Common Pitfalls to Avoid

• Don't trust one source blindly: Just because Suetonius says an emperor was "mad" doesn't mean it's a fact. Check if the coins or inscriptions of the time tell a different story.
• Check the context: A source produced 100 years after an event (like Plutarch writing about the 5th Century BC) is different from an eyewitness account (like Thucydides).
• Use the correct terms: In your exam, using the word "numismatic evidence" instead of just "coins" shows the examiner you are thinking like a historian!

Key Takeaway: History is a puzzle. No single piece of evidence gives the whole picture. By combining literary narratives with the hard evidence of epigraphy, numismatics, and archaeology, we can build a much more reliable version of the ancient world.