Welcome to Utilitarianism!
In this chapter, we are exploring one of the most famous ways to make moral decisions: Utilitarianism. This theory belongs to the "Religion and Ethics" section of your OCR AS Level course. Unlike some theories that focus on religious laws or strict duties, Utilitarianism is all about the results of our actions. It asks one simple question: "Which choice will produce the most happiness?"
Don't worry if it feels a bit mathematical at first—we’ll break down the "calculus" and the different types of Utilitarianism step-by-step.
1. The Core Concept: Utility
The word Utility basically means "usefulness." In ethics, it refers to the property of an action that produces benefit, advantage, pleasure, or happiness, and prevents pain or unhappiness.
Utilitarianism is a teleological theory. This is a fancy word that comes from the Greek word telos (end or purpose). It means the morality of an action is decided by its consequences (the end result), rather than the action itself. For example, lying is usually seen as wrong, but a Utilitarian might say lying is "good" if it results in saving many lives.
Key Principle: The Principle of Utility
The goal of every moral decision should be to achieve "the greatest happiness for the greatest number."
Quick Review:
- Happiness = The presence of pleasure and the absence of pain.
- Utility = How useful an action is at producing happiness.
- Focus = The consequences (results) of the action.
2. Measuring Happiness: The Hedonic Calculus
How do we actually measure "happiness"? To make this theory more scientific and objective, a system called the Hedonic Calculus was developed. It is a list of seven criteria used to calculate the amount of pleasure or pain an action will cause.
Think of it like a "moral scoreboard." When faced with a choice, you weigh up these seven factors:
- Intensity: How strong is the pleasure or pain?
- Duration: How long will the pleasure or pain last?
- Certainty: How likely is it that the pleasure or pain will actually happen?
- Propinquity (Remoteness): How soon will the pleasure or pain occur? (Is it happening now or in ten years?)
- Fecundity: Will this pleasure lead to more pleasures afterwards?
- Purity: What is the chance that it will not be followed by the opposite sensation? (e.g., Will this pleasure lead to pain later?)
- Extent: How many people will be affected by the action?
Analogy: Imagine you are choosing between buying a video game or donating the money to charity. You would use the calculus to see which choice results in the highest "score" of happiness across all seven categories.
Did you know?
The Hedonic Calculus treats everyone's happiness as equal. Whether you are a king or a student, your pleasure counts for exactly the same amount in the calculation!
3. Act Utilitarianism
Act Utilitarianism is the most direct form of the theory. It argues that we should apply the Principle of Utility to every individual act we perform.
How it works:
When you are about to do something, you stop and calculate the consequences of that specific action. There are no fixed rules. If stealing a loaf of bread to feed a starving family creates more happiness than the pain it causes the shopkeeper, an Act Utilitarian would say it is the right thing to do in that specific moment.
Common Mistakes to Avoid:
Don't think Act Utilitarians are "rule-breakers." They just believe that rules (like "don't steal") are guidelines that can be ignored if ignoring them leads to a better result in a specific situation.
4. Rule Utilitarianism
Some people found Act Utilitarianism difficult because it takes a long time to calculate every single decision. Rule Utilitarianism was developed to solve this.
Instead of looking at individual acts, Rule Utilitarianism focuses on general rules that everyone should follow to produce the greatest happiness for society as a whole.
How it works:
- We look at a rule, such as "Never tell a lie."
- We ask: "If everyone followed this rule, would it produce more total happiness than if they didn't?"
- If the answer is yes, we keep the rule and follow it, even if in one specific case lying might seem better.
Wait, what's the difference?
- Act Utilitarianism: "Will this lie make people happy right now?"
- Rule Utilitarianism: "Do rules about truth-telling generally make society happier?"
5. Applied Ethics: Business Ethics
In your exam, you may be asked to apply Utilitarianism to Business Ethics. (Note: You may also see Utilitarianism applied to Euthanasia in your wider studies, but for this specific specification, it is heavily linked to Business Ethics).
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR):
A Utilitarian would support CSR if it increases the happiness of stakeholders (employees, customers, and the local community). For example, if a company treats its workers well, they are happier and more productive, which leads to better profits and a better society. This fits the goal of the greatest happiness for the greatest number.
Whistle-blowing:
A Utilitarian would weigh the pain caused to the company (job losses, loss of reputation) against the pleasure/safety caused by stopping a dangerous practice. If speaking out prevents a disaster that would hurt thousands, the extent and intensity of that saved pain make whistle-blowing the right choice.
"Good ethics is good business":
Utilitarians often agree with this. If being ethical makes customers happy and loyal, it creates a "fecund" (growing) cycle of happiness and profit.
Cross-reference: You can compare this to Kantian Ethics, which focuses on duty rather than consequences. See the "Kantian Ethics" chapter for more details.
6. Summary and Quick Review
To help you remember the main points, keep this summary in mind:
- Utility: The usefulness of an action in producing happiness.
- Teleological: Focused on the end result or consequences.
- Hedonic Calculus: Seven ways to measure pleasure (Intensity, Duration, Certainty, Propinquity, Fecundity, Purity, Extent).
- Act Utilitarianism: Calculating happiness for every specific action.
- Rule Utilitarianism: Following general rules that tend to produce the most happiness for everyone.
Key Formula: \( \text{Action} \rightarrow \text{Maximum Pleasure} - \text{Minimum Pain} = \text{The Right Choice} \)
Final Tip for Success:
When writing an essay, always consider if a Utilitarian approach is practical. Is it actually possible to calculate the happiness of everyone affected by a decision (the extent)? This is a great point to use for AO2 (Evaluation) marks!