The development of the British Empire, with a depth study of India, and Ireland and Home Rule

History · Key Stage 3 (KS3) · 19 min read · Updated: 22 Oct 2026

Welcome to Your History Study Guide: The British Empire and India (1745–1901)

Hello! Welcome to this study guide on how the British Empire expanded its power, with a special focus on India. Between 1745 and 1901, Britain went through massive changes—from the growth of steam-powered factories in the Industrial Revolution to the expansion of its empire across the globe.

India became known as the "Jewel in the Crown" of the British Empire. But how did a small island nation thousands of miles away come to control such a huge, rich, and diverse subcontinent? Don't worry if this sounds complicated at first! We will break the story down into simple, step-by-step pieces:

1. How a private trading business (the East India Company) took over land.
2. The huge uprising of 1857 that changed everything.
3. The official British rule (the British Raj) and Queen Victoria.
4. How British rule changed India's economy, railways, and daily life.

Part 1: From Traders to Rulers – The East India Company (EIC)

What was the East India Company?

Back in 1600, Queen Elizabeth I granted a royal charter to a group of merchants called the East India Company (EIC). The EIC was not the British government; it was a private joint-stock business created to make a profit by trading goods like spices, silk, cotton, tea, and saltpetre (used to make gunpowder).

Everyday Analogy: Imagine a giant modern shopping corporation having its own private army, its own warships, and taking over entire countries to control shopping supplies. That was the East India Company!

How Did the EIC Gain Control?

In the early 1700s, India was ruled by the powerful Mughal Empire. However, during the 18th century, the Mughal Empire began to decline and break apart into regional kingdoms. India was not a single, unified country; it was a vast subcontinent made of different languages, religions (such as Hinduism, Islam, and Sikhism), and local rulers known as nawabs and rajas.

The EIC cleverly took advantage of these rivalries between local princes. They used their private army to back one prince against another, gradually expanding their own power.

Key Turning Points

• The Battle of Plassey (1757): Led by Robert Clive, the EIC army defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah (the Nawab of Bengal) and his French allies. This gave the EIC political and military control over the wealthy region of Bengal.
• The Treaty of Allahabad (1765) and the Diwani: The Mughal Emperor granted the EIC the Diwani—the official right to collect land taxes and manage civil justice in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. This transformed the EIC from a simple trading company into a powerful territorial ruler!
• The Company Army and Sepoys: To control this vast territory, the EIC built a massive private standing army. While the top officers were British, the vast majority of regular soldiers were Indian men known as sepoys.

Key Takeaway for Part 1: Before 1858, Britain's government did not rule India directly. A private business—the East India Company—used military victories like the Battle of Plassey and tax rights like the Diwani to take control.

Part 2: The Indian Rebellion of 1857

What Was the Rebellion?

In 1857, a massive uprising broke out against the rule of the East India Company. This was a critical turning point in history.

The Immediate Trigger: The Greased Cartridges

In early 1857, the British introduced the new Enfield rifle. To load the rifle, soldiers had to bite the top off a paper cartridge greased with animal fat. Rumours spread rapidly that the grease was made from cow fat (sacred to Hindus) and pig fat (forbidden in Islam). This deeply offended both Hindu and Muslim sepoys, making them believe the British were trying to destroy their religious beliefs.

The Deeper Causes (The Real Fuel for the Fire)

While the cartridges were the spark, anger had been building for many years due to long-term grievances:

• Heavy Land Taxes: The EIC collected heavy taxes from peasants and landowners.
• Territorial Annexations: Policies like the Doctrine of Lapse allowed the EIC to take over Indian princely states if a local ruler died without a direct natural heir.
• Cultural and Religious Fears: Many Indians feared that British Christian missionaries and laws were threatening their traditional customs and faiths.
• Inequality in the Army: Indian sepoys were paid far less than British soldiers and faced racial discrimination with no chance of promotion to top ranks.

Key Events and Figures

• Meerut: The uprising began in May 1857 when sepoys at Meerut mutinied, killed British officers, and marched to Delhi.
• Delhi: Rebels proclaimed the elderly Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, as the symbolic leader of India.
• Key Centres of Fighting: Fierce battles took place in northern and central cities such as Delhi, Kanpur (Cawnpore), and Lucknow.
• Rani of Jhansi (Lakshmibai): A brave queen who led her troops into battle against British forces after her kingdom was annexed, becoming an iconic symbol of resistance.

Different Names, Different Perspectives

How historians name this event shows how different people viewed it:
• "The Indian Mutiny": The traditional British imperial name, suggesting it was just a small, disloyal military rebellion.
• "The First War of Independence": The Indian nationalist term, viewing it as a united national struggle to throw off foreign rule.
• "The Indian Rebellion of 1857": The modern, balanced term used by historians today to describe the wide mix of soldiers, princes, and peasants who revolted.

Key Takeaway for Part 2: The 1857 Rebellion was sparked by greased rifle cartridges, but caused by deep anger over heavy taxes, annexed land, and cultural disrespect.

Part 3: The British Raj – Crown Rule and Queen Victoria

The Government of India Act (1858)

The violence of 1857 shocked the British government. Realising a private company could no longer control such a massive population, Parliament passed the Government of India Act 1858:

• End of Company Rule: The East India Company was stripped of its ruling powers.
• Direct Crown Rule: The British Crown (the government and monarch) took direct control of India. This period of direct rule is known as the British Raj (meaning 'rule' or 'reign').
• The Viceroy: The top British official in India, previously called the Governor-General, was now given the title of Viceroy (meaning someone who rules on behalf of the King or Queen).

The "Jewel in the Crown" and Empress Victoria

India was called the "Jewel in the Crown" because it was Britain's most valuable, profitable, and strategically important imperial colony. It provided huge markets for British goods, vast raw materials, and a large army.

In 1876 (taking official effect in 1877), British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli arranged for Queen Victoria to be proclaimed Empress of India (Kaisar-i-Hind). This cemented the idea that the British Empire was the greatest global power of the Victorian era.

Key Takeaway for Part 3: After 1858, India was ruled directly by the British Crown (the British Raj) through a Viceroy, and Queen Victoria became Empress of India.

Part 4: Economic Impact, Infrastructure, and Famines

Trade and Industry: Who Benefited?

During the Industrial Revolution, British factories needed cheap raw materials and large markets to sell their manufactured products:

• Raw Material Extraction: India exported huge amounts of raw cotton, jute, tea, and indigo (a blue dye) to supply British mills and factories, especially the cotton mills in Lancashire.
• Deindustrialisation of Indian Textiles: For centuries, Indian weavers were famous for fine, handmade cotton cloth. However, cheap, machine-made textiles imported from British factories flooded Indian markets. This undercut native weavers and devastated India's traditional handloom industry.

Why Were Railways and Telegraphs Built?

The British built extensive networks of railways, telegraph lines, and irrigation canals across India. While this modernisation helped connect the country, it was built primarily to serve British interests:

1. Military Control: Railways and telegraphs allowed the British army to move troops and send messages rapidly across India to put down any unrest.
2. Economic Transport: Trains moved cash crops and raw materials quickly from inland farms to coastal ports (like Bombay and Calcutta) to be shipped to Britain.

Famines in British India

During the late 18th and 19th centuries, India suffered devastating famines, including the 1770 Bengal famine and the 1876–1878 Great Famine. While droughts caused crop failures, the impact was made much worse by government policies:

• Cash-Crop Farming: Land that once grew food was turned over to growing export crops (like cotton and indigo) to make money.
• Free-Market Export Policies: Food grains were often exported out of famine-stricken regions to other markets instead of being distributed to starving populations.

Key Takeaway for Part 4: British infrastructure like railways had a double purpose—connecting trade and controlling territory. British trade policies hurt traditional Indian textile makers and contributed to severe famines.

Part 5: Common Misconceptions to Avoid in Exams

Mistake 1: Thinking the British Government always ruled India.
Correction: From 1600 to 1858, a private business (the East India Company) controlled India. Direct British government rule (the British Raj) only existed from 1858 to 1947.

Mistake 2: Believing India was a single, united country before the British arrived.
Correction: India was a diverse subcontinent made up of many different kingdoms, languages, cultures, and religions under the declining Mughal Empire.

Mistake 3: Saying the 1857 Rebellion was only about greased bullet cartridges.
Correction: The cartridges were the spark, but long-term anger over heavy taxes, stolen lands, discrimination, and religious interference was the true fuel.

Mistake 4: Assuming railways were built purely as a gift to help Indian citizens.
Correction: Railways were primarily planned for military deployment to keep control and for transporting raw materials to ports for British profit.

Quick Revision Summary & Memory Aids

Timeline at a Glance

• 1600: East India Company founded by Royal Charter.
• 1757: Battle of Plassey won by Robert Clive (EIC controls Bengal).
• 1765: Treaty of Allahabad grants the Diwani (tax-collecting rights).
• 1857: Indian Rebellion begins at Meerut.
• 1858: Government of India Act ends EIC rule; the British Raj begins.
• 1876: Queen Victoria declared Empress of India.

Memory Trick: The 3 "R"s of the British Raj

• R – Rebellion (1857): The uprising that ended company rule.
• R – Raj (1858): Direct rule by the British Crown and its Viceroy.
• R – Raw Materials & Railways: Exporting cotton, tea, and jute to Britain using strategic rail networks.

Key Terms Glossary

• East India Company (EIC): A British joint-stock trading company that ended up ruling vast parts of India.
• Sepoy: An Indian soldier serving in the British East India Company army.
• Diwani: The legal right to collect taxes in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.
• British Raj: The period of direct British Crown rule in India (1858–1947).
• Viceroy: The senior British official appointed to govern India on behalf of the British monarch.
• "Jewel in the Crown": The phrase used to describe India as the most valuable colony in the British Empire.

Welcome to Ireland and Home Rule (1745–1901)

Hello! Welcome to your study guide on Ireland and Home Rule. During the Victorian era, one single question dominated British politics more than almost any other: How should Ireland be governed?

Don't worry if this topic feels a bit complicated at first. We will break it down step-by-step, look at the big ideas, explore the dramatic clashes in Parliament, and learn why this issue divided politicians, families, and nations.

What you will learn in this chapter:
• How Ireland and Britain became joined under the Act of Union.
• How the Great Famine and land struggles changed Irish society forever.
• What Home Rule actually meant (and what it didn't mean!).
• The major figures: Daniel O'Connell, Charles Stewart Parnell, and William Gladstone.
• Why the Home Rule Bills of 1886 and 1893 caused huge political storms.

1. Setting the Scene: Britain and Ireland Before Home Rule

The Protestant Ascendancy and Absentee Landlords

In the 18th and 19th centuries, Ireland was divided deeply by land ownership and religion:

• The Protestant Ascendancy: A small, wealthy Anglo-Irish Protestant minority owned most of the land and held nearly all political power.
• The Catholic Majority: The vast majority of the Irish population were Roman Catholic tenant farmers who rented small plots of land to survive.
• Absentee Landlords: Many wealthy landowners lived in Great Britain and rarely visited their Irish estates. They hired local agents to collect rent, which created great anger among struggling tenant farmers.

The 1798 Rebellion and the Act of Union (1800)

In 1798, an armed uprising broke out in Ireland led by Wolfe Tone and a group called the Society of United Irishmen. They wanted to overthrow British control and set up an independent republic. The rebellion was defeated by British forces.

Shocked by the uprising, the British Prime Minister, William Pitt the Younger, decided that the only way to ensure security was to unite the two countries completely.

• The Act of Union (passed in 1800, took effect in 1801): This law abolished the separate Irish Parliament in Dublin. It officially created the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. From 1801, Irish MPs (Members of Parliament) sat directly in the Westminster Parliament in London.

Catholic Emancipation (1829)

Even though Catholics made up most of Ireland's population, they were banned by law from sitting as MPs in Parliament. A charismatic Irish lawyer named Daniel O'Connell (nicknamed "The Liberator") set up the Catholic Association. Through massive, peaceful protests, O'Connell pressured the British government into passing the Catholic Emancipation Act in 1829, which finally allowed Roman Catholics to become MPs.

Quick Key Takeaway: The 1800 Act of Union merged Britain and Ireland into one United Kingdom, moving Irish political power to Westminster in London. Daniel O'Connell proved that peaceful mass campaigning could force Parliament to grant civil rights.

2. The Great Famine and the Land War

The Great Famine (An Gorta Mór, 1845–1852)

In 1845, a plant disease called potato blight struck Ireland, ruining the potato harvest. Because millions of poor tenant families relied almost entirely on potatoes for food, the result was catastrophic.

• Over 1 million people died from starvation and diseases like typhus.
• Over 1 million people emigrated, fleeing on ships to Britain, the USA, and Canada.
• The British government was heavily influenced by laissez-faire (free-market) economic ideas, believing the government should interfere as little as possible in trade and food supply. As a result, government relief measures were widely seen as too slow and inadequate.

The tragedy of the Famine left deep, lasting bitterness and convinced many Irish people that the British government in London could not or would not protect them.

The Land War and the Land League (1879–1882)

Decades after the Famine, tenant farmers still faced high rents and the constant threat of eviction (being thrown off their land) if bad weather caused crops to fail.

In 1879, Michael Davitt founded the Irish National Land League, with politician Charles Stewart Parnell as its president. This period of intense protest became known as the Land War.

The Land League fought for the "Three Fs":

1. Fair Rent: Rents decided by a court, not just whatever the landlord demanded.
2. Fixity of Tenure: Tenants could not be evicted if they paid their rent.
3. Free Sale: Tenants had the right to sell any improvements they made to their farm.

Did You Know? The Origin of the Word "Boycott"
During the Land War, the Land League used peaceful social isolation against landlords and agents who evicted tenants. In 1880, in County Mayo, locals completely refused to work for, talk to, or trade with an English land agent named Captain Charles Boycott. The tactic worked so well that his name entered the English language as the word boycott!

Quick Key Takeaway: The suffering of the Great Famine and the struggles of the Land War created intense anger over land ownership and fuelled the desire for Irish people to manage their own affairs.

3. Understanding the Big Ideas: Nationalism vs Unionism

What Was "Home Rule"?

Home Rule was the demand for Ireland to have its own parliament in Dublin to manage its own domestic affairs (such as education, roads, local taxes, and agriculture), while remaining inside the British Empire.

Under Home Rule, the British Parliament in Westminster would still control foreign policy, defence, and imperial trade.

Everyday Analogy: Think of Home Rule like a student council. The student council gets to decide the school rules, events, and clubs (domestic policy), but the Headteacher and Academy Trust still manage the overall budget, building security, and legal rules (imperial policy).

Two Opposing Views: Nationalism vs Unionism

1. Irish Nationalism (Mainly supported by Catholics across Ireland)
Nationalists believed that Ireland was a distinct nation with the right to self-government. However, Nationalists were split into two methods:

• Constitutional / Parliamentary Nationalism: Believed in using peaceful, democratic methods, elections, and debates in Parliament to win Home Rule (led by politicians like Isaac Butt and Charles Stewart Parnell).
• Revolutionary / Physical-force Republicanism: Believed that peaceful politics would never work and that armed rebellion was needed to win complete independence as a separate republic (e.g., the Fenians / Irish Republican Brotherhood).

2. Unionism (Mainly supported by Protestants, heavily concentrated in the northern province of Ulster)
Unionists strongly opposed Home Rule and wanted to keep the 1800 Act of Union exactly as it was. They had two main reasons:

• Religious Fears: Since Protestants were a minority in Ireland, they feared they would be outvoted and dominated by the Catholic majority in a Dublin parliament (summed up by their slogan: "Home Rule means Rome Rule").
• Economic Fears: Ulster (especially Belfast) had booming industries like shipbuilding and linen that depended on trade with Britain and the Empire. They feared an agricultural Dublin parliament would harm their wealth.

Quick Key Takeaway: Home Rule meant devolution (a local Dublin parliament for local matters), not full separation. Nationalists wanted self-government, while Unionists feared losing their religious freedom and economic ties to Britain.

4. The Home Rule Battles in Westminster (1880s–1890s)

Charles Stewart Parnell and the Irish Parliamentary Party

In the late 1870s and 1880s, Charles Stewart Parnell became the leader of the Irish Parliamentary Party (IPP). Parnell was a brilliant, disciplined leader. He organized Irish MPs to vote together as a single, united block.

By the 1885 general election, the IPP won 86 seats. Neither the British Liberals nor the Conservatives had an overall majority, which meant Parnell held the balance of power. He could choose to support whichever British party agreed to deliver Home Rule!

Gladstone and the First Home Rule Bill (1886)

The veteran Liberal Prime Minister, William Ewart Gladstone, announced that he supported Home Rule, declaring: "My mission is to pacify Ireland."

• In 1886, Gladstone introduced the First Home Rule Bill to the House of Commons.
• What happened? It caused a massive political earthquake. Gladstone's own Liberal Party split in two. A group called the Liberal Unionists (led by Joseph Chamberlain and Lord Hartington) rebelled against Gladstone and voted with the Conservatives.
• The Result: The bill was defeated in the House of Commons by 341 votes to 311. Gladstone resigned as Prime Minister.

The Second Home Rule Bill (1893)

Gladstone became Prime Minister again and introduced the Second Home Rule Bill in 1893.

• In the House of Commons: The bill passed by 301 votes to 267.
• In the House of Lords: The unelected House of Lords (which was overwhelmingly Conservative) crushed the bill, rejecting it decisively by 419 votes to 41.

"Constructive Unionism" (1890s)

After defeating the Home Rule Bills, Conservative governments led by Lord Salisbury and his Chief Secretary for Ireland, Arthur Balfour, tried a new tactic known as "Constructive Unionism".

Their aim was to "kill Home Rule with kindness". They passed land purchase acts that helped Irish tenant farmers buy their farms from their landlords. The Conservatives hoped that if Irish farmers owned their own land and became prosperous, they would lose interest in political nationalism and stop demanding Home Rule.

Quick Key Takeaway: Home Rule split British politics down the middle. The First Bill failed in the Commons due to a split among Liberals; the Second Bill passed the Commons but was blocked by the House of Lords.

5. Common Mistakes to Avoid in KS3 History

Make sure you don't fall into these common traps in your classwork and assessments:

• Mistake 1: Thinking Home Rule meant total independence.
Correction: Home Rule was devolution. Ireland would remain part of the United Kingdom and the British Empire under the British Crown, but with its own parliament in Dublin for domestic affairs.

• Mistake 2: Assuming all people in Ireland wanted the same thing.
Correction: Ireland was deeply divided. While most Catholics supported Nationalism and Home Rule, most Protestants (especially in Ulster) were Unionists who fought passionately against it.

• Mistake 3: Mixing up the two Home Rule Bills.
Correction: The 1886 First Bill was defeated in the House of Commons because the Liberal Party split. The 1893 Second Bill passed the Commons, but was rejected by the House of Lords.

• Mistake 4: Confusing the 19th century with 20th-century events.
Correction: Keep your timeline secure! Famous 20th-century events like the 1916 Easter Rising, the Third Home Rule Crisis (1912–1914), and the 1921 Partition of Ireland happened after the Victorian era (post-1901).

6. Chapter Summary & Quick Revision Checklist

Can you explain these key terms and events in your own words?

Key Vocabulary to Remember:
• Act of Union (1800/1801): Abolished the Dublin Parliament and united Britain and Ireland.
• Protestant Ascendancy: The wealthy Protestant minority that owned most land and held power.
• Great Famine (1845–1852): Potato blight causing 1 million deaths and 1 million emigrants.
• Land War (1879–1882): Campaign for the "Three Fs" (Fair Rent, Fixity of Tenure, Free Sale).
• Home Rule: Self-government for Ireland on local domestic issues within the British Empire.
• Constitutional Nationalism: Campaigning peacefully through elections and Parliament (Parnell).
• Physical-Force Republicanism: Fighting for full independence through armed rebellion (Fenians).
• Unionism: Wanting to maintain the union with Britain to protect Protestant rights and industry.
• Liberal Unionists: Liberals led by Chamberlain who broke away to oppose Home Rule in 1886.
• Constructive Unionism: Conservative policy to "kill Home Rule with kindness" through land reform.

Well done! You now have a complete, clear understanding of Ireland and the Home Rule movement between 1745 and 1901.

Quick check

Can you answer these now?

Open each question to check the key ideas from this chapter.

What was the East India Company (EIC)?

The EIC was a private British joint-stock trading company founded in 1600 that traded valuable goods and eventually conquered and ruled large areas of India.

How did the decline of the Mughal Empire help the East India Company expand its power in India?

The decline left India divided into rival regional kingdoms led by nawabs and rajas, allowing the EIC to play local rulers against one another.

What was the significance of the Battle of Plassey and the Treaty of Allahabad?

They established EIC military control over Bengal in 1757 and granted the Company the Diwani (tax-collecting rights) in 1765, turning it into a territorial government.

What was the immediate spark of the Indian Rebellion of 1857?

The introduction of the Enfield rifle, whose cartridges were rumoured to be greased with sacred cow fat and forbidden pig fat that soldiers had to bite.

What were the underlying, long-term causes of the 1857 Indian Rebellion?

Deep resentment over heavy land taxes, land annexations (like the Doctrine of Lapse), racial discrimination in the army, and fear of religious interference.

Why do historians use different names to describe the events of 1857?

Different terms reflect differing perspectives: British officials saw it as a disloyal military revolt ("Indian Mutiny"), nationalists as a liberation fight ("First War of Independence"), and modern historians as a widespread uprising ("Indian Rebellion").

What major changes were introduced by the Government of India Act 1858?

It abolished the East India Company's rule, transferred power directly to the British Crown (the British Raj), and established the role of the Viceroy.

Why was India called the "Jewel in the Crown" of the British Empire?

India was Britain's most valuable and profitable colony, providing essential raw materials, a vast market for manufactured goods, and a large military force.

How did British industrial trade policies impact traditional Indian manufacturing?

They caused the deindustrialisation of India's textile industry by flooding the market with cheap British machine-made cloth while extracting raw materials like cotton and jute.

What were the primary British motivations for building railways and telegraph networks in India?

They were designed to transport troops quickly to maintain military control and to move raw materials efficiently from inland regions to export ports.

Why did severe famines occur in India under British colonial rule?

While triggered by droughts, famines were worsened by switching farmland to cash crops for export and maintaining free-market policies that exported food rather than feeding local people.

What was the Protestant Ascendancy in 18th- and 19th-century Ireland?

The Protestant Ascendancy was the small, wealthy Anglo-Irish Protestant minority that owned most of the land and held almost all political power in Ireland.

What change was brought about by the Act of Union (1800)?

The Act of Union abolished the separate Irish Parliament in Dublin and created the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, moving Irish representation to Westminster in London.

What did the Catholic Emancipation Act of 1829 achieve?

It granted Roman Catholics the legal right to sit as Members of Parliament (MPs) in the Westminster Parliament.

What were the main consequences of the Great Famine (1845–1852) in Ireland?

Over 1 million people died from starvation and disease, over 1 million emigrated, and deep resentment grew against the British government's inadequate laissez-faire response.

What were the "Three Fs" demanded by the Irish National Land League during the Land War?

The "Three Fs" were Fair Rent (fixed by a court), Fixity of Tenure (protection against eviction if rent was paid), and Free Sale (the right to sell tenant-made farm improvements).

What did the term "Home Rule" mean for Ireland?

Home Rule meant devolution: Ireland would have its own parliament in Dublin for domestic affairs while remaining inside the British Empire, leaving foreign policy and defence to Westminster.

How did Constitutional Nationalists differ from Physical-Force Republicans?

Constitutional Nationalists sought Home Rule peacefully through elections and parliamentary debate, whereas Physical-Force Republicans used armed rebellion to pursue complete separation as a republic.

Why did Irish Unionists strongly oppose Home Rule?

Unionists feared that as a Protestant minority they would be dominated by the Catholic majority ("Home Rule means Rome Rule") and that their industrial economy in Ulster would be damaged.

How did Charles Stewart Parnell gain the "balance of power" in the British Parliament in 1885?

Parnell led a disciplined Irish Parliamentary Party that won 86 seats, allowing him to decide whether the Liberals or Conservatives could form a governing majority.

Why was the First Home Rule Bill of 1886 defeated?

The bill split the Liberal Party, leading a breakaway group of "Liberal Unionists" to vote with the Conservatives in the House of Commons against it.

What was the outcome of Gladstone's Second Home Rule Bill in 1893?

The Second Home Rule Bill passed the House of Commons but was overwhelmingly rejected by the Conservative-dominated House of Lords.

What was the Conservative policy of "Constructive Unionism" in the 1890s?

It was a policy aimed at "killing Home Rule with kindness" by funding land reforms that allowed Irish tenant farmers to buy their land, hoping they would lose interest in political nationalism.

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