長引く不景気 (The prolonged recession): internationalisation of the economy and accepting migrant foreign workers

Theme 3: 変わっていく人生観 (Changing Outlooks on Life)

Chapter: 長引く不景気 (The Prolonged Recession)

Welcome to your study guide for 長引く不景気 (The Prolonged Recession) and its related themes: 経済の国際化 (Internationalisation of the economy) and 移住外国人労働者の受け入れ (Accepting migrant foreign workers). Don't worry if Japanese economic and social terminology feels overwhelming at first! We will break down every concept step-by-step with clear definitions, cultural context, and key exam strategies for Paper 1 and Paper 3.

In the Pearson Edexcel A Level Japanese (9JA0) exam, this topic connects macroeconomic events directly to everyday human life and modern social values. Understanding these links is essential for scoring high marks in Paper 1 Section C (Research Task Essay) and Paper 3 (Listening, Reading, and Writing Synthesis).

1. Historical Background & Impact on Daily Life (日常生活への影響)

To understand why modern Japanese life and career outlooks changed, we must first look at what happened when the post-war economic boom came to an abrupt halt.

A. The Economic Shift: From Bubble to Deflation

• バブル崩壊 (Baburu hōkai - Collapse of the bubble economy): In the early 1990s, Japan's inflated real estate and stock market bubble burst, triggering decades of economic stagnation.
• 失われた十年 / 失われた三十年 (Ushinawareta jūnen / Ushinawareta sanjūnen - The Lost Decades): Refers to the prolonged economic stagnation following the bubble collapse.
• デフレ / デフレスパイラル (Defure / Defure supairaru - Deflation / Deflationary spiral): A continuous drop in the prices of goods and services, leading to lower business profits, wage stagnation, and reduced consumer spending.

B. Breakdown of Traditional Employment

For decades after World War II, standard corporate life in Japan followed the 日本型雇用 (Nihon-gata koyō - Japanese-style employment system), which rested on two main pillars:
1. 終身雇用 (Shūshin koyō - Lifetime employment): Companies hired graduates and guaranteed them a job until retirement.
2. 年功序列 (Nenkō joretsu - Seniority-based wage system): Pay and promotion increased automatically with age and years of service.

What changed during the prolonged recession? Companies could no longer guarantee lifetime employment and cut costs by hiring non-regular workers instead.

• 就職氷河期 (Shūshoku hyōgaki - Employment ice age): The generation of graduates in the 1990s and 2000s who faced extreme hiring freezes and struggled to secure stable, full-time jobs.
• 正規雇用 (Seiki koyō - Regular full-time employment) vs. 非正規雇用 (Hiseiki koyō - Non-regular employment): Non-regular employment includes 派遣社員 (haken shain - dispatch/agency workers), 契約社員 (keiyaku shain - contract workers), and part-timers. Non-regular workers face lower pay, fewer benefits, and weak job security.

C. Direct Consequences for Individuals and Society

• 格差社会 (Kakusa shakai - Unequal/gap society): Growing income inequality between regular and non-regular workers.
• 賃金の停滞 (Chingin no teitai - Stagnant wages): Because salaries did not rise, young people faced financial insecurity, leading many to delay marriage and family planning, accelerating 少子化 (shōshika - declining birthrate).
• 節約志向 (Setsuyaku shikō - Budget/thrift orientation): Consumers increasingly prioritized low-cost goods, leading to the rapid growth of 百円ショップ (hyaku-en shoppu - 100-yen shops) and private discount brands.

Quick Summary / Key Takeaway: The prolonged recession dismantled traditional lifetime job security, created the Employment Ice Age generation, expanded non-regular work (非正規雇用), and reinforced budget-conscious consumer behavior across Japan.

2. Government Response (政府の対応)

How did the Japanese government respond to the double challenge of persistent deflation and a shrinking domestic workforce?

A. Economic and Monetary Measures

• 金融緩和 (Kin'yū kanwa - Monetary easing): Lowering interest rates and increasing money supply to encourage borrowing, investment, and spending.
• 財政出動 (Zaisei shutsudō - Fiscal stimulus/spending): Government investment into public works and economic initiatives to stimulate demand and end deflation.

B. Labour Market Reforms: 働き方改革 (Work Style Reform)

To modernize the labour market, the 働き方改革関連法 (Work Style Reform Legislation) was introduced from 2019. It targets three core areas:

1. 長時間労働の是正 (Chōjikan rōdō no zesei - Correcting long working hours): Setting legal overtime caps to reduce excessive overwork and improve work-life balance.
2. 同一労働同一賃金 (Dōitsu rōdō dōitsu chingin - Equal pay for equal work): Mandating that non-regular employees receive fair pay and benefits comparable to regular employees performing the same work.
3. Expanding Workforce Participation: Creating supportive working conditions to encourage more women and elderly citizens to remain in or re-enter the workforce.

C. 地方創生 (Chihō Sōsei - Regional Revitalisation)

Economic concentration in Tokyo (東京一極集中) left rural areas economically depressed and depopulated. Government policies promote regional job creation, tourism, and business subsidies to revitalize local rural economies.

Quick Summary / Key Takeaway: Government actions combined monetary/fiscal stimulus with structural labour reforms (働き方改革) to limit excessive overtime, enforce equal pay for equal work, and support regional economic survival.

3. Internationalisation of the Economy (経済の国際化)

As the domestic market shrank due to deflation and population decline, Japanese businesses were forced to internationalise both outwardly and inwardly.

A. Globalisation & Exchange Rates (円高 vs. 円安)

• グローバル化 / グローバリゼーション (Globalisation): Japanese companies expanded global supply chains and direct foreign investment.
• 円高 (Endaka - Strong Yen): When the yen is strong, Japanese export products become more expensive overseas, while operating factories abroad becomes cheaper. This prompted many domestic manufacturers to move production facilities overseas (e.g., to Southeast Asia and China).
• 産業の空洞化 (Sangyō no kūdōka - Hollowing out of domestic industry): As factories moved overseas to cut labour costs, domestic manufacturing jobs disappeared, weakening local industrial bases in Japan.
• 円安 (En'yasu - Weak Yen): A weaker yen makes Japanese exports more competitive abroad and makes visiting Japan cheaper for international travellers.

B. Inward Internationalisation & Inbound Tourism

• インバウンド観光 (Inbaundo kankō - Inbound tourism): Promoting overseas travel to Japan became a core national strategy to bring foreign consumer spending directly into regional and urban economies.
• Reliance on Global Supply Chains: Japanese retail, food, and manufacturing industries rely heavily on international imports and overseas market growth to sustain revenue.

Quick Summary / Key Takeaway: To stay competitive, Japanese firms relocated factories overseas to reduce costs (causing 産業の空洞化), while domestic economic policy pivoted toward expanding inbound tourism (インバウンド観光) and cross-border trade.

4. Accepting Migrant Foreign Workers (移住外国人労働者の受け入れ)

Japan faces a demographic reality: 少子高齢化 (Shōshi kōreika - declining birthrate and aging population). This has created an acute 人手不足 / 労働力不足 (Hitode busoku / Rōdōryoku busoku - labour shortage) across essential industries.

A. Key Shortage Sectors

Foreign human resources are urgently needed in essential industries, including:
• 介護 (Kaigo - Elderly nursing care)
• 建設 (Kensetsu - Construction)
• 農業 (Nōgyō - Agriculture)
• 製造業 (Seizōgyō - Manufacturing)
• 外食業 (Gaishokugyō - Food service / restaurant industry)

B. Visa Frameworks & Systems

• 技能実習制度 (Ginō jisshū seido - Technical Intern Training Program / TITP): Originally created to transfer technical skills to developing countries. In practice, it served as a major source of low-cost manual labour in agriculture, manufacturing, and construction.
• 特定技能 (Tokutei ginō - Specified Skilled Worker status): Introduced in April 2019 as a formal policy framework to accept foreign nationals with designated technical skills and Japanese language ability directly into workforce-deficient sectors.

C. Societal Challenges & Multicultural Coexistence

Accepting migrant foreign workers involves practical social integration issues:

• 言語の壁 (Gengo no kabe - The language barrier): Providing adequate Japanese language education in local municipalities and workplaces.
• 生活支援 (Seikatsu shien - Daily life support): Assisting foreign residents with housing, healthcare, administrative paperwork, and disaster information in multiple languages.
• 労働環境の改善 (Rōdō kankyō no kaizen - Improving working conditions): Ensuring fair pay, stopping workplace exploitation, and guaranteeing equal legal rights.
• 多文化共生 (Tabunka kyōsei - Multicultural coexistence): Building communities where Japanese and foreign residents understand, respect, and support one another as equal members of society.

Quick Summary / Key Takeaway: Due to 少子高齢化, Japan introduced the 特定技能 status in 2019 to address labour shortages in sectors like 介護 and 建設. Successful integration requires overcoming 言語の壁 and promoting 多文化共生.

5. Essential Vocabulary & Formulaic Expressions

Memorise these key terms to write accurately and fluently in your examination:

• 長引く不景気 (Nagabiku fukeiki) – Prolonged recession
• バブル崩壊 (Baburu hōkai) – Collapse of the bubble economy
• デフレ (Defure) – Deflation
• 非正規雇用 (Hiseiki koyō) – Non-regular employment
• 正規雇用 (Seiki koyō) – Regular employment
• 終身雇用 (Shūshin koyō) – Lifetime employment
• 年功序列 (Nenkō joretsu) – Seniority-based wage system
• 就職氷河期 (Shūshoku hyōgaki) – Employment ice age
• 働き方改革 (Hatarakikata kaikaku) – Work style reform
• 同一労働同一賃金 (Dōitsu rōdō dōitsu chingin) – Equal pay for equal work
• 産業の空洞化 (Sangyō no kūdōka) – Hollowing out of industry
• 少子高齢化 (Shōshi kōreika) – Declining birthrate and aging population
• 人手不足 / 労働力不足 (Hitode busoku / Rōdōryoku busoku) – Labour shortage
• 技能実習制度 (Ginō jisshū seido) – Technical Intern Training Program
• 特定技能 (Tokutei ginō) – Specified Skilled Worker status
• 多文化共生 (Tabunka kyōsei) – Multicultural coexistence
• 言語の壁 (Gengo no kabe) – Language barrier

6. Exam Pitfalls & Examiner Tips

Paper 1 Section C (Research Task Essay: 600–700 Characters)

• Avoid abstract generalisations: Do not simply write that "the economy is bad." Cite specific structural causes such as バブル崩壊, デフレ, or the rise of 非正規雇用.
• Link economics to human impact: High-scoring essays explain how economic stagnation directly affects personal life choices (e.g., job insecurity, delayed marriage, thriftiness/節約志向).
• Master character counts: Stay strictly within the 600–700 Japanese character requirement and adhere to standard Japanese punctuation and manuscript rules.

Paper 3 (Listening, Reading, and Writing Synthesis)

• Do not copy verbatim: Avoid lifting long phrases directly from the source texts. Paraphrase and synthesize facts in your own words.
• Accurate policy distinctions: Do not confuse general immigration with structured guest-worker programs. Differentiate accurately between the 技能実習制度 (TITP) and the 特定技能 (Specified Skilled Worker) status introduced in 2019.
• Balanced evaluation: When discussing foreign workers, evaluate both economic benefits (solving 人手不足) and social integration challenges (言語の壁, 多文化共生).