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Hölzel et al. identified the hippocampus and the insula as two primary regions of interest (ROIs) based on previous findings of structural changes associated with mindfulness practice. The hippocampus plays a key role in memory, learning processes, and emotional regulation, whereas the insula is involved in interoceptive and visceral awareness.

1 mark: Correctly identifying both ROIs (the hippocampus and the insula) [0.5 marks for only one ROI].
1 mark: Clearly stating the functional role of one of these regions (e.g., hippocampus = learning/memory/emotion regulation OR insula = introspective awareness/visceral sensation).
0.5 marks: Writing a coherent and psychologically accurate response.

In the Comfort Distance Task (CDT), participants observed an animated figure or avatar approaching them from the opposite side of the screen. They had to press a key (the spacebar) to stop the figure when they felt it was too close for comfort. The remaining distance represented their preferred personal boundary.

1 mark: Explaining the dynamic nature of the task (the figure/avatar approaching the participant's position on a screen).
1 mark: Identifying the active response required from the participant (pressing the spacebar to stop the figure when feeling uncomfortable).
0.5 marks: Stating how the distance was measured/recorded (the remaining distance or percentage of total screen distance).

To maintain high objectivity and eliminate experimenter bias, Dement and Kleitman minimized direct interaction during the dream-recall phase. They utilized voice recordings for the participants to report their dreams and restricted the experimenter's questions to a standard neutral inquiry (whether they had been dreaming or not), with no leading questions.

1 mark: Explaining the use of a tape recorder/voice recorder to eliminate face-to-face interaction during recall.
1 mark: Explaining that the experimenter asked a highly standardized, non-leading question (asking only if they had dreamed and to describe it).
0.5 marks: Explicitly linking one or both of these controls to the prevention of researcher bias or demand characteristics.

In Bandura et al.'s study, 72 children in total were split equally into three main groups of 24. These groups were exposed to: 1. An aggressive model, 2. A non-aggressive model, or 3. No model (the control group).

1.5 marks: Correctly naming all three conditions (aggressive, non-aggressive, and control/no model) [0.5 marks per condition].
1 mark: Correctly stating that there were 24 children in each of these three groups.

Hassett et al. categorized toys into wheeled toys (thought to appeal to systemising preferences) and plush toys (thought to appeal to empathising preferences). Specific wheeled toys included a wagon, a dump truck, and a police car. Specific plush toys included Winnie the Pooh, Raggedy Andy, and a plush dog.

1 mark: Identifying both toy categories (wheeled toys and plush toys).
1.5 marks: Providing a correct specific example of a toy from each category (0.75 marks for the wheeled toy example and 0.75 marks for the plush toy example).

The secondary reinforcer (the whistle) was conditioned by pairing it with food. When the elephant performed the correct action, the handler blew the whistle immediately to provide instant feedback that the action was correct, followed by the delivery of food.

1 mark: Describing the classical conditioning process (pairing the neutral sound of the whistle with a primary reward/food until an association was formed).
1 mark: Describing how it was used in training sessions (blown immediately at the exact moment of correct behavioral execution to signal reinforcement).
0.5 marks: Explaining its purpose as a bridging signal (bridging the gap in time between the behavior and the physical delivery of food).

Milgram recruited a sample of 40 male participants from the New Haven area through newspaper advertisements and direct mail. The participants represented a wide range of occupations and were between the ages of 20 and 50.

1 mark: Correctly stating the number of participants (40).
0.5 marks: Correctly identifying that the sample was entirely male.
1 mark: Correctly identifying the age range of the participants (20 to 50 years old).

Saavedra and Silverman used a Feelings Thermometer to quantify the boy's cognitive and emotional reactions to various buttons. This was a 9-point scale ranging from 0 (no distress) to 8 (maximum distress) to construct a hierarchy of fear and disgust.

1 mark: Explaining the purpose of the Feelings Thermometer (to assess and quantify the boy's subjective distress, fear, or disgust towards different buttons/to build a hierarchy of stimuli).
1 mark: Stating the correct scale range (a 9-point scale OR specifically ranging from 0 to 8).
0.5 marks: Detailing the anchor points (e.g., 0 equals no distress/fear, and 8 equals maximum distress/fear).

The questionnaire used by Holzel et al. was the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ). This questionnaire measures mindfulness across five distinct subscales: Observing (noticing internal and external sensory experiences), Describing (labeling experiences with words), Acting with awareness (paying attention to current activities), Non-judging of inner experience (avoiding evaluative thoughts about feelings), and Non-reactivity to inner experience (allowing thoughts and feelings to come and go without reacting).

Award marks as follows: 0.5 marks for correctly naming the questionnaire as the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (or FFMQ); 1.0 mark for each of the two correctly identified subscales (up to a maximum of 2.0 marks). Acceptable subscales include: Observing, Describing, Acting with awareness, Non-judging of inner experience, and Non-reactivity to inner experience.

In the study by Perry et al., participants received either oxytocin or a placebo. The method of administration was intranasal (delivered via a nasal spray). The exact dosage of oxytocin administered was 24 IU (International Units), which consisted of three puffs per nostril. After the administration, a waiting period of 45 minutes was observed before the experimental tasks commenced to ensure the substance reached peak efficacy.

Award marks as follows: 1.0 mark for stating the method of administration (intranasal or nasal spray); 1.0 mark for stating the exact dosage (24 International Units or 24 IU); 0.5 marks for stating the waiting period (45 minutes).

The researchers measured grey matter concentration changes through several steps: First, they took MRI scans of the participants' brains before and after the 8-week MBSR program. Second, they used a 1.5 Tesla Siemens scanner to acquire high-resolution T1-weighted images. Third, they analyzed the scans using Voxel-Based Morphometry (VBM). Fourth, they segmented the brain tissue to specifically measure and compare grey matter concentration changes in target areas like the hippocampus.

Award 1 mark for each of the following points, up to a maximum of 4 marks: (1) Mentioning that participants underwent MRI scans before and after the 8-week MBSR program. (2) Specifying that high-resolution T1-weighted images were acquired (or using a 1.5 Tesla scanner). (3) Explaining that Voxel-Based Morphometry (VBM) was used to analyze the images. (4) Explaining that VBM segmented the scan into grey matter, white matter, and cerebrospinal fluid to measure concentration changes in specific regions of interest (such as the hippocampus).

The computerized comfortable interpersonal distance (CID) paradigm worked as follows: The participant is shown in the center of a circular field as a central figure labeled 'you'. A peripheral figure, representing a specific social target (like a friend or stranger), begins to approach from one of eight directions. The participant presses the spacebar to stop the approaching figure when they start to feel uncomfortable. The distance from the center is calculated as a percentage of the total radius, representing the participant's preferred personal space.

Award 1 mark for each of the following points, up to a maximum of 4 marks: (1) Explaining that the task was computerized with a central figure in a circle representing the participant. (2) Identifying that a peripheral figure representing a specific social target (e.g., friend, stranger) approaches the center from one of eight paths. (3) Describing that participants press the spacebar to stop the approaching figure when they feel uncomfortable with the distance. (4) Detailing that the preferred distance is measured as the remaining percentage of the circle's radius (where lower percentages mean closer personal space).

The behavior of the rhesus monkeys was coded from video recordings of the toy trials. Observers recorded two main types of behaviors: 'Interactions', which included physical contacts such as holding, touching, sniffing, carrying, or manipulating the toy; and 'Looks', defined as a distinct visual orientation toward the toy from within one meter without contact. The duration and frequency of each behavior were measured using a computer program, and inter-rater reliability was checked by having a second observer code a subset of the videos.

Award 1 mark for each of the following points, up to a maximum of 4 marks: (1) Stating that behaviors were coded from video recordings of the trials. (2) Identifying 'Interactions' as a coded behavior and describing it (e.g., physical contact like touching, holding, chewing). (3) Identifying 'Look' as a coded behavior and describing it (e.g., visual orientation from within 1 meter without physical contact). (4) Explaining that duration and/or frequency of these behaviors were recorded (or mentioning that inter-rater reliability was assessed).

In the elephant learning study, the secondary reinforcer was an acoustic stimulus (a clicker sound). It was established by pairing it with a primary reinforcer (chopped bananas) until the elephants learned that the click signaled the delivery of food. Once established, the trainer used the clicker during sessions to instantly reinforce correct behaviors (like presenting an ear or foot) at the precise moment they occurred. This 'bridging' technique let the elephant know which specific action was successful before the food was handed over.

Award 1 mark for each of the following points, up to a maximum of 4 marks: (1) Identifying the secondary reinforcer as an acoustic stimulus/sound from a clicker. (2) Explaining how it was established by pairing the clicker sound with a primary reinforcer (food/chopped bananas). (3) Explaining that the click was delivered immediately before the food reward so the elephant associated the two. (4) Explaining how it was used in training to instantly signal/reinforce the correct behavior (as a bridge) the moment it occurred.

Before the telephone message played, participants in the doodling group received specific instructions: (1) They were asked to listen to a recorded telephone call about a party. (2) They were instructed to write down only the names of people who were definitely or probably attending, and to ignore other information. (3) They were instructed to shade the geometric shapes (squares and circles) on their response sheet. (4) They were told that neatness or speed did not matter and that the shading was just to relieve boredom.

Award 1 mark for each of the following points, up to a maximum of 4 marks: (1) Listening to a recorded telephone message (about a party). (2) Writing down only the names of people who were definitely or probably coming (and ignoring non-attenders/other details). (3) Shading in the printed shapes (squares and circles) on the paper sheet. (4) Being told that neatness or speed of shading did not matter / that the task was just to relieve boredom.

Similarity: Both studies used advanced physiological recording equipment to collect objective quantitative data, which increases the scientific credibility of the research.
- In Hölzel et al., Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scans were used to measure changes in grey matter concentration in specific brain structures, such as the hippocampus and temporoparietal junction, before and after a mindfulness program.
- In Dement and Kleitman, an Electroencephalograph (EEG) was used to detect brain wave activity to identify sleep stages (REM and NREM), alongside Electrooculography (EOG) to record eye movements.

Difference: The studies differed in their use of an active behavioral intervention over time versus a passive, immediate observation of natural physiological states.
- Hölzel et al. was a longitudinal study involving an active intervention where participants engaged in an 8-week Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program, measuring structural brain changes from pre-test to post-test.
- Conversely, Dement and Kleitman was a highly controlled laboratory observation of natural sleep processes over a few nights, with no therapeutic or behavioral intervention training administered to the participants prior to or during the study.

For the similarity (maximum 4 marks):
- 1 mark: Clear conceptual statement of the similarity (e.g., both used objective scientific equipment).
- 1 mark: Elaboration of the similarity / methodological advantage (e.g., this reduces demand characteristics or increases reliability).
- 1 mark: Clear application to Hölzel et al. (e.g., MRI scans measuring grey matter concentration).
- 1 mark: Clear application to Dement and Kleitman (e.g., EEG/EOG to measure brain waves and eye movements).

For the difference (maximum 4 marks):
- 1 mark: Clear conceptual statement of the difference (e.g., active longitudinal intervention vs. immediate laboratory observation).
- 1 mark: Elaboration of the difference / methodological implications.
- 1 mark: Clear application to Hölzel et al. (e.g., 8-week MBSR program with pre- and post-tests).
- 1 mark: Clear application to Dement and Kleitman (e.g., sleep observation over several nights with no active intervention).

To achieve full marks (9-10), the response must cover:
1. Two distinct strengths (one of which must be the named issue: the use of objective measures).
2. Two distinct weaknesses.
3. Clear, direct application and context from the Hölzel et al. study for each point.
4. Balanced argument with a logical structure and mature psychological terminology.

Points to include:
- Named Issue (Objective Measures): Detailed discussion of MRI technology as an objective tool to measure grey matter density. Explain why this is a strength (no bias, quantifiable, highly scientific).
- Second Strength: Mention the waitlist control group (controls for maturation/external factors) or the highly standardized nature of the 8-week MBSR program (facilitates replication).
- First Weakness: Mention the subjectivity of self-report measures (FFMQ questionnaire), detailing how demand characteristics could influence responses.
- Second Weakness: Mention the generalisability issues of the self-selected, small sample size (16 experimental, 17 control) who were highly motivated to seek stress reduction, reducing generalisability to the wider, non-motivated, or clinical population.

Level 4 (8-10 marks):
- Evaluation is comprehensive, featuring two strengths (including the named issue) and two weaknesses.
- Points are highly detailed, offering clear explanations and explicit links to the Hölzel et al. study.
- Structure is logical and the argument is balanced.

Level 3 (5-7 marks):
- Evaluation is good, but may lack depth or balance (e.g., one point is significantly weaker than the others).
- Includes the named issue and at least two other points (e.g., one strength and two weaknesses, or vice versa).
- Links to the study are clear but could be further developed.

Level 2 (3-4 marks):
- Evaluation is limited or unbalanced (e.g., only strengths are discussed, or the named issue is omitted).
- Links to the study are weak or superficial.

Level 1 (1-2 marks):
- Basic discussion of the study with minimal evaluation.
- May simply describe the study without evaluating it.

Level 0 (0 marks):
- Response is irrelevant or not worthy of credit.

Operationalisation refers to defining variables in a clear, measurable format so they can be systematically tested and replicated. In the study by Hassett et al., the independent variable of toy type was operationalised into 'masculine' (wheeled toys like trucks) and 'feminine' (plush toys like rag dolls). The dependent variable of preference was operationalised using duration (time in seconds interacting with the toy) and frequency (number of contacts), alongside specific coded behaviors like carrying, sitting on, or sniffing.

1 mark for a clear definition of 'operationalisation' (e.g., converting a concept or variable into a measurable form). 1.5 marks for context to Hassett et al.: 1 mark for identifying the types of toys (wheeled/plush) or the measurements (frequency/duration of interactions), and 0.5 marks for specific detail (such as naming a coded behavior like 'holding', 'destroying', or 'carrying').

Inter-rater reliability is the consistency between different observers when recording the same behaviors. In Bandura et al., one observer scored all the children's behavior. To establish reliability, a second observer independently scored a sample of \(40\%\) of the children. Their ratings were compared using a correlation coefficient, yielding extremely high reliability coefficients of around \(r = 0.89\) to \(r = 0.90\) across the different categories of aggressive behavior.

1 mark for defining inter-rater reliability (the extent of agreement/consistency between two or more observers coding the same behavior). 1.5 marks for contextualisation to Bandura et al.: 1 mark for explaining that two observers scored a subset of the children independently, and 0.5 marks for mentioning a high correlation coefficient (such as over \(0.80\) or specifically \(r = 0.89\)) or that \(40\%\) of the children were rated by both observers.

Ecological validity refers to how well research findings generalise to everyday, real-world situations and environments. The study by Dement and Kleitman lacks ecological validity because it took place in a highly artificial laboratory setting. Participants slept in a strange bed with EEG electrodes attached to their scalp and face, and had their sleep interrupted throughout the night by a loud doorbell to report their dreams. This environment is likely to alter normal, natural sleep patterns.

1 mark for defining ecological validity (the extent to which experimental findings represent real-world settings). 1.5 marks for context to Dement and Kleitman: 1 mark for identifying an artificial aspect of the study (e.g., sleeping in a lab, wearing electrodes, being woken by a doorbell), and 0.5 marks for explaining why this differs from real-world sleep (e.g., sleep patterns are likely altered compared to a normal night at home).

Demand characteristics are cues in an investigation that inform the participant of the researcher's hypotheses or expectations, leading them to adjust their behavior (consciously or unconsciously). In Perry et al., participants completed a repetitive computerized Comfort Interactive Distance (CID) task. If participants guessed that the study was evaluating personal space preferences based on their diagnoses (oxytocin vs. placebo, or high vs. low empathy), they might have intentionally selected distances they felt were socially normal or expected of them rather than expressing their genuine comfort levels, thus reducing internal validity.

1 mark for defining demand characteristics (features of an experiment that convey the purpose/aim to the participant, leading them to alter behavior). 1.5 marks for context to Perry et al.: 1 mark for explaining how participants could guess the aim (e.g., through the CID computer tasks focusing on physical distance), and 0.5 marks for explaining the effect on validity (e.g., choosing distance to appear socially normal rather than genuine comfort).

Counterbalancing is a method used to control for order effects (such as practice or fatigue) in a repeated measures design by alternating the order of the experimental conditions (e.g., AB vs. BA). In Andrade's doodling study, an independent measures design was used where participants were allocated to either the doodling group or the control group. Because participants only experienced one condition (one level of the independent variable), there were no order effects to control, making counterbalancing unnecessary.

1 mark for defining counterbalancing (an experimental technique to control for order effects like fatigue/practice by varying the order of conditions). 1.5 marks for context to Andrade: 1 mark for stating that Andrade used an independent measures design (or that participants only did one condition), and 0.5 marks for explaining that order effects cannot occur when participants only experience one condition.

An objective measure is a data collection method that produces factual, quantifiable measurements that are free from observer bias, personal interpretation, or self-report distortions. In the study by Hölzel et al., the researchers utilized magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans to obtain precise, quantitative anatomical data on grey matter concentration in specific brain structures, which provided an objective biological metric of brain structure changes.

1 mark for defining an objective measure (a factual, unbiased measurement independent of personal opinion/interpretation). 1.5 marks for context to Hölzel et al.: 1 mark for identifying the MRI/fMRI scans, and 0.5 marks for specifying what was being measured objectively (e.g., grey matter concentration/density/volume in the hippocampus/brain).

An unstructured observation involves a researcher writing down any and all behaviors they witness without using a structured coding checklist, typically generating qualitative data. Piliavin et al. did not use this method because they wanted to compare helping rates across very specific conditions (e.g., drunk vs. ill victim, black vs. white victim). Employing structured observation with pre-defined coding categories (such as gender of helper, latency to help, and location of passengers) ensured high inter-observer reliability and generated structured, quantitative data suitable for statistical analysis.

1 mark for defining unstructured observation (recording behavior freely without a pre-set coding scheme or checklist). 1.5 marks for context to Piliavin et al.: 1 mark for explaining that structured data was necessary to compare specific conditions (e.g., drunk vs. ill, black vs. white), and 0.5 marks for noting the challenge of reliability or capturing rapid data in a moving, crowded subway carriage without a checklist.

Protection from harm is an ethical guideline stating that researchers must protect participants from physical or psychological damage, distress, or discomfort during a study. In Saavedra and Silverman's study, exposure therapy carries a risk of severe distress. They addressed this by starting with imaginal exposure and cognitive restructuring (which are less distressing) before proceeding to in vivo exposure, and by using a subjective distress hierarchy (using the Feelings Thermometer) to monitor the boy's anxiety levels. Additionally, they obtained active consent from both the boy and his mother, who was present during the sessions to provide comfort.

1 mark for defining protection from harm (preventing psychological or physical distress/injury to participants). 1.5 marks for applying to Saavedra and Silverman: 1 mark for describing a protective feature of the therapy (e.g., gradual exposure starting with imagery/discussion, using the Feelings Thermometer to monitor distress), and 0.5 marks for mentioning parental involvement/support (mother present) or active assent from the boy.

(a) IV: The 8-week mindfulness meditation programme (pre- vs. post-test).
(b) Strength: Longitudinal designs allow tracking of developmental/structural change within the same individuals over time, eliminating individual differences (participant variables) as confounding factors.
(c) Problem: MRI scans are highly sensitive to movement. If students move due to discomfort or boredom, the images will be blurred. MRI is also expensive and requires specialized technicians.

(a) 1 mark for correct identification of the IV (mindfulness programme / pre- vs post-test).
(b) 1 mark for identifying a strength of a longitudinal design (e.g., control of participant variables/individual differences, tracking change over time). 1 mark for applying it to this specific study (comparing the same students' brains before and after).
(c) 1 mark for identifying a practical problem of MRI scans (e.g., cost, need to stay still, claustrophobia). 1 mark for applying it to the context of scanning student brains over time.

(a) IV: Participant personality type (introvert vs. extravert).
(b) DV operationalisation: The participant is shown a diagram with a central figure (representing themselves) and an approaching figure (stranger). The DV is measured as the distance (in mm) at which the participant stops the approaching figure due to discomfort.
(c) Ethical issue: Protection from harm. Intrusion of personal space (even simulated) can cause anxiety. The researcher must debrief participants and offer the right to withdraw.

(a) 1 mark for identifying personality type (introversion vs. extraversion) as the IV.
(b) 1 mark for identifying the measurement of physical/simulated distance (in mm/pixels). 1 mark for linking it to the point of discomfort/stopping the figure in the CID.
(c) 1 mark for identifying a relevant ethical issue (e.g., protection from harm, right to withdraw, informed consent). 1 mark for applying it to the simulated stranger/personal space paradigm.

(a) Advantage: Closed questions yield quantitative data that can be easily summarised (e.g., mean severity score) and compared statistically, improving reliability and efficiency of analysis.
(b) Disadvantage: They force participants into pre-determined responses, which prevents them from elaborating on complex feelings of tension and relief, lowering the construct validity of the questionnaire.
(c) Opportunity sampling.

(a) 1 mark for identifying an advantage of closed questions (quantitative data / easy analysis). 1 mark for contextualising to kleptomania/symptom severity.
(b) 1 mark for identifying a disadvantage of closed questions (lack of detail / forced choices). 1 mark for contextualising to the emotional or behavioural aspects of kleptomania.
(c) 1 mark for correctly identifying opportunity sampling (or purposive/convenience sampling).

(a) IV: Type of reward system (monetary vs. paid time off).
(b) DV: Employee motivation. This can be operationalised objectively (e.g., sales volume, attendance rates) or subjectively (e.g., score on a work motivation questionnaire).
(c) Weakness: Reduced internal validity due to confounding variables. Because the groups are existing store branches, differences in branch size, manager leadership style, or customer location could affect the results rather than the reward system itself.

(a) 1 mark for identifying the type of reward system (monetary bonuses vs. extra paid time off) as the IV.
(b) 1 mark for stating employee motivation as the DV. 1 mark for suggesting a valid, operationalised measurement (e.g., sales figures, questionnaire score).
(c) 1 mark for identifying a weakness of natural experiments (lack of control/extraneous variables). 1 mark for explaining it in the context of retail store branches (e.g., differences in location, staff, or management).

The study is a correlational design investigating two co-variables. Co-variable 1 (mindfulness practice) is operationalised as the total number of hours spent practicing meditation over a four-week period, tracked daily by participants in a log. Co-variable 2 (stress) is operationalised using a standardized self-report scale, the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10), giving a score from 0 to 40. Reliability is ensured through standardization of the instructions provided to participants for logging their meditation hours.

For each of the three required features, up to 2 marks are available: 1. Measurement of mindfulness meditation: 1 mark for basic description (e.g., 'Participants write down how long they meditate'). 2 marks for a fully operationalised description (e.g., 'Participants keep a daily diary for four weeks, recording the exact minutes of mindfulness meditation per day, summed to a total number of hours at the end of the month'). 2. Measurement of self-reported stress: 1 mark for basic description (e.g., 'Using a questionnaire about stress'). 2 marks for a fully operationalised description (e.g., 'Using a standardised 10-item Perceived Stress Scale with a 5-point Likert scale to produce a score out of 40'). 3. Ensuring reliability: 1 mark for identifying a control or method of reliability (e.g., 'Using standardized instructions'). 2 marks for explaining how this ensures reliability (e.g., 'Using identical written instructions on how to fill in the daily log ensures all participants record their meditation time consistently, reducing researcher bias and measurement error').

### Part (a) Model Design (10 marks)

* **Aim:** To investigate whether receiving a financial reward for writing reduces subsequent intrinsic motivation to write.
* **Independent Variable (IV):** Whether the participant is promised and given a financial reward for writing ($15) or receives no financial reward (control group).
* **Dependent Variable (DV):** Intrinsic motivation, operationalised as the exact time (in seconds, measured covertly via a stopwatch by an observer behind a one-way mirror) the participant spends voluntarily continuing to write/edit their story during an unprompted 10-minute 'free choice' period.
* **Experimental Design:** Independent measures design. Participants are randomly allocated to either the reward or the no-reward condition using a random number generator to prevent individual differences from biasing the groups.
* **Sample:** A sample of 40 university students (aged 18–22, recruited via opportunity sampling from a university library). This sample size (20 per group) is manageable for laboratory testing.
* **Procedure:**
1. Participants are tested individually in a standardized lab room containing a desk with a laptop (open to a blank word processor document), a bookshelf with magazines, and a Rubik's cube.
2. **Reward Group:** The researcher instructs the participant to write a story based on a prompt ("The clock stopped ticking") and states, "If you complete this story in 15 minutes, you will receive $15."
3. **No-Reward Group:** The researcher gives the exact same prompt but makes no mention of a reward.
4. After 15 minutes, the researcher returns, collects the story (paying the reward group), and says: "I need to step out for 10 minutes to process your paperwork. You can do whatever you want while you wait—feel free to keep writing, read the magazines, or play with the toys."
5. During this 10-minute period, an observer records the number of seconds the participant spends writing on the laptop.
* **Controls:** The same writing prompt is used, the testing room layout and alternative activities are identical, and the researcher uses a standardized script for both conditions.

### Part (b) Ethical Issue and Resolution (4 marks)

* **Ethical Issue identified (1 mark):** Deception / Lack of fully informed consent.
* **Application to design (1 mark):** Participants are led to believe the study is over and the researcher is just processing paperwork. They are unaware they are being covertly observed and timed through a one-way mirror during their 10-minute 'free-choice' period.
* **Resolution (2 marks):** To address this, a comprehensive retrospective debrief must be conducted immediately after the 10 minutes end. The researcher will explain the true aim of the study, disclose the covert observation, and apologize for the necessary deception. Crucially, the participant must be given the explicit right to withdraw their data; if they refuse consent, their timed data and written story will be immediately deleted in their presence.

### Part (a) Design Mark Scheme [10 marks]

* **9–10 marks:** High-quality, replicable, and highly detailed design. Both the IV and DV are clearly operationalised (specifically how intrinsic motivation is measured). Control measures, sample, and procedures are logical, highly controlled, and directly address the prompt.
* **7–8 marks:** Good design with minor omissions. The IV and DV are clear, but some procedural details or controls could be more explicitly structured. Replicable with minor clarification.
* **4–6 marks:** Basic design. Has a clear IV and DV, but lacks detail on how control is maintained or how the 'free choice' period is executed. May have some experimental weaknesses.
* **1–3 marks:** Weak or highly confused design. Major elements (such as the DV measurement or experimental control) are missing or inappropriate.
* **0 marks:** No response or completely irrelevant response.

### Part (b) Evaluation/Ethics Mark Scheme [4 marks]

* **1 mark:** Identify a relevant ethical issue (e.g., deception, lack of consent, invasion of privacy).
* **1 mark:** Apply the ethical issue directly to the proposed experimental scenario (e.g., observing the participant covertly during the break).
* **2 marks:** Provide a detailed and practical solution to resolve this issue (e.g., detail how a retrospective debrief will work, outlining the participant's right to withdraw their observed data, and ensuring confidentiality).

To use Exposure and Response Prevention (ERP) to treat Marcus:

1. **Establish a fear/anxiety hierarchy**: The therapist and Marcus would identify different levels of contamination triggers (e.g., touching a clean door handle inside his home vs. touching a public restroom door handle).
2. **In vivo Exposure**: Marcus is exposed to the feared stimulus (e.g., touching a public door handle) starting from the lower levels of the hierarchy.
3. **Response Prevention**: Marcus is actively prevented from performing his ritualistic handwashing compulsion after the exposure.
4. **Habituation**: By preventing the compulsion, Marcus experiences temporary high anxiety which eventually declines naturally. This breaks the negative reinforcement cycle, showing him that his anxiety will decrease without performing the handwashing ritual.

Award 1 mark for each of the following points, up to a maximum of 4 marks:
- **1 mark** for describing the exposure element (e.g., having Marcus touch a door handle/dirty object based on an anxiety hierarchy).
- **1 mark** for describing the response prevention element (e.g., preventing Marcus from washing his hands after touching the handle).
- **1 mark** for explaining the psychological mechanism of ERP (e.g., habituation/extinction of anxiety, breaking the cycle of negative reinforcement).
- **1 mark** for explicit application to Marcus's scenario throughout the response (referencing door handles and handwashing).

*Accept/Reject notes:*
- Do not credit general CBT descriptions (e.g., cognitive restructuring only) that do not focus on ERP, as ERP is specified in the question.
- Max 2 marks if there is no explicit application to Marcus's scenario (i.e., the answer is entirely generic).

To motivate her team using Hackman and Oldham's Job Characteristics Model, Amira can target two or more core job characteristics:

1. **Task Identity**: Amira can allow the testers to work on a software package from start to finish. Instead of testing isolated components, they could test an entire module and see the final product launch, giving them a sense of completion.
2. **Task Significance**: Amira can explain and demonstrate the critical impact of their testing (e.g., showing how finding a specific bug prevents security breaches or financial loss for their actual clients), making their repetitive tasks feel more meaningful.
3. **Skill Variety**: Instead of repetitive manual testing, Amira could redesign the job to include varied tasks, such as writing automated test scripts, designing new test cases, or mentoring junior testers.
4. **Autonomy**: Amira could give the testers more freedom and discretion to decide their own testing schedules and choose which testing tools to use.

Award up to 4 marks for the suggestion, structured as follows:
- **1 mark** for identifying a relevant core job characteristic from Hackman and Oldham's model (e.g., task identity, task significance, skill variety, autonomy, feedback).
- **1 mark** for applying this first characteristic directly to Amira's software testing scenario (e.g., showing them the final software or explaining client-side impacts of bugs).
- **1 mark** for identifying a second core job characteristic from the model.
- **1 mark** for applying this second characteristic directly to Amira's software testing scenario (e.g., introducing automated scripting to vary skills, or allowing autonomous scheduling).

*Accept/Reject notes:*
- Do not award marks for general motivation theories (e.g., Maslow's hierarchy, Vroom's expectancy theory) unless they are explicitly integrated into a valid explanation of the Job Characteristics Model.
- Max 2 marks if the answer is purely theoretical and lacks application to the software testers.

The feeling-state theory, proposed by Miller (2010), explains impulse control disorders (ICDs) as a result of an intense connection formed between a specific behavior (e.g., gambling or kleptomania) and a highly positive emotional/physiological feeling (e.g., a rush of excitement, power, or relief). This intense connection is called a 'feeling-state' (a state-dependent memory). When the person experiences a psychological trigger, the desire to re-experience that specific feeling-state drives them to repeat the behavior, even if it leads to highly negative real-world consequences, thereby establishing the cycle of an impulse control disorder.

1 mark for identifying the creation of an intense link or association between a behavior and a positive emotional state (the 'feeling-state').
1 mark for explaining that the individual repeats the behavior in order to re-experience this positive feeling/state-dependent memory.
1 mark for identifying how this cycle leads to the development of an impulse control disorder despite negative consequences or triggers.

In Vroom's expectancy theory of work motivation, defined by the formula \( \text{Motivation} = \text{Expectancy} \times \text{Instrumentality} \times \text{Valence} \), 'instrumentality' refers to the subjective probability or belief held by an employee that if they meet their performance targets, they will receive a specific reward or outcome (e.g., a promotion, bonus, or recognition). It represents the link between performance and outcome. It is typically assessed on a scale from 0 (meaning the individual believes performance has no bearing on receiving the outcome) to 1 (meaning the individual is certain that performance will lead directly to the outcome).

1 mark for explaining that instrumentality is the belief that performance levels are linked to receiving specific outcomes or rewards.
1 mark for explaining that it represents a subjective probability or perception (e.g., 'if I perform well, I will get a bonus').
1 mark for mentioning its role in the VIE formula (e.g., showing how if instrumentality is zero, overall motivation is zero).

The orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is responsible for detecting errors and sending worry or threat signals to the thalamus. In a healthy brain, the caudate nucleus acts as a filter to suppress these minor worry signals. However, in individuals with OCD, an overactive or abnormal OFC continuously generates worry signals, and/or an abnormal caudate nucleus fails to suppress them. This creates a hyperactive 'worry circuit' that forces the individual to experience repetitive, intrusive obsessive thoughts and feel compelled to perform safety behaviors (compulsions) to temporarily relieve the anxiety.

1 mark for identifying the role of the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) in generating or processing worry/error detection signals.
1 mark for explaining the interaction/dysfunction with other brain structures like the caudate nucleus or thalamus (forming the 'worry circuit').
1 mark for linking this hyperactivity/abnormality to the manifestation of intrusive obsessions and the resulting need for compulsive behaviors.

The Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS), created by Holmes and Rahe, measures stress by quantifying the amount of social readjustment an individual has experienced due to major life changes. It consists of a self-report checklist of 43 life events (such as divorce, death of a family member, or change in financial state). Each event is pre-assigned a numerical score known as Life Change Units (LCUs), which reflect the severity of adjustment required. Participants tick the events they have experienced over a specific period (e.g., 12 or 24 months), and these LCUs are summed to produce a total score. A higher score indicates higher accumulated stress and a greater risk of developing a stress-related physical illness.

1 mark for stating that it is a self-report checklist of 43 major life events (e.g., divorce, death, job loss).
1 mark for explaining 'Life Change Units' (LCUs) as the numerical values assigned to each event based on the adjustment needed.
1 mark for explaining how the total score is computed (summing LCUs over a time period) and how it correlates with stress level or illness susceptibility.

The biomedical explanation of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) focuses on biological factors such as genetics, biochemistry, and brain structure.

1. Genetic Explanation:
- Suggests that OCD is inherited. Twin studies show significantly higher concordance rates for OCD in monozygotic (MZ) twins than in dizygotic (DZ) twins.
- Specific candidate genes have been implicated, including those involved in serotonin transmission (such as the SERT gene) and dopamine regulation (such as the COMT gene).

2. Biochemical Explanation:
- Focuses on neurotransmitters, specifically serotonin and dopamine. Low levels of serotonin or abnormal serotonin functioning are thought to contribute to OCD symptoms.
- This explanation is supported by clinical trials showing that Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs), which increase serotonin levels in the brain, are effective in reducing the severity of OCD symptoms.

3. Neuroanatomical Explanation (Brain Structure):
- Focuses on abnormal brain circuitry, specifically the 'OCD loop' involving the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), the caudate nucleus (part of the basal ganglia), and the thalamus.
- In a healthy brain, the OFC detects worry signals and sends them to the thalamus, while the caudate nucleus acts as a filter to suppress minor worries. In OCD, a damaged or malfunctioning caudate nucleus fails to filter these signals. This causes the thalamus to become hyperactive, sending worry signals back to the OFC, creating an obsessive loop.

Level 3 (5-6 marks):
- Description is detailed, accurate, and coherent.
- Shows excellent understanding of at least two biomedical aspects (e.g., genetic, biochemical, or neuroanatomical).
- Use of psychological terminology is appropriate and accurate.

Level 2 (3-4 marks):
- Description is mostly accurate with some detail.
- Shows understanding of at least one biomedical explanation in detail, or multiple aspects in limited depth.
- Some use of psychological terminology.

Level 1 (1-2 marks):
- Description is basic and lacks detail, or contains significant inaccuracies.
- Limited understanding of biological mechanisms in OCD.
- Minimal use of psychological terminology.

Level 0 (0 marks):
- No creditworthy response.

Hackman and Oldham's (1976) Job Characteristics Model proposes that jobs can be designed to increase internal work motivation by changing specific features of the work itself.

1. Five Core Job Dimensions:
- Skill variety: The degree to which a job requires a range of different activities and skills.
- Task identity: The degree to which a job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work (from start to finish).
- Task significance: The degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of others.
- Autonomy: The degree of freedom, independence, and discretion given to the employee in scheduling and executing their work.
- Feedback: The degree to which carrying out the work activities provides direct and clear information about performance effectiveness.

2. Three Critical Psychological States:
- Experienced meaningfulness of the work: Derived from skill variety, task identity, and task significance.
- Experienced responsibility for outcomes of the work: Derived from high autonomy.
- Knowledge of the actual results of the work activities: Derived from feedback.

3. Outcomes:
- High internal work motivation, high-quality work performance, high satisfaction with the work, and low absenteeism/turnover.
- The theory also notes that 'Growth Need Strength' (the employee's desire for personal development) acts as a moderator, meaning the model works best for individuals who desire personal growth.

Level 3 (5-6 marks):
- Description is detailed, accurate, and clearly structured.
- Identifies and describes core job dimensions, critical psychological states, and outcomes/moderators (such as Growth Need Strength or the Motivating Potential Score formula).
- Shows excellent understanding of how these components connect.

Level 2 (3-4 marks):
- Description is mostly accurate with some detail.
- Identifies several core job dimensions and psychological states but lacks detail or fails to fully explain the links between them.
- Good use of psychological terminology.

Level 1 (1-2 marks):
- Basic description with limited detail or accuracy.
- May only list a few core dimensions without describing the broader model or psychological states.
- Minimal or no use of psychological terminology.

Level 0 (0 marks):
- No creditworthy response.

Explanations of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) represent various sides of psychological debates.

1. The Named Issue (Nature versus Nurture):
- Nature: Biomedical explanations (genetic and biochemical) argue that OCD is innate. Genetic explanations focus on candidate genes like the SERT and COMT genes, and biochemical explanations point to low levels of serotonin. These explanations support the nature side of the debate because they attribute the disorder to biological predispositions and inheritance.
- Nurture: Cognitive and behavioural explanations suggest that OCD is learned or acquired through environmental interactions. For example, obsessions may be cognitive distortions, and compulsions are learned, reinforcing behaviours that reduce anxiety (operant conditioning). These support the nurture side as they depend on experiences and learning.

2. Other Evaluative Points:
- Reductionism vs. Holism: Biomedical explanations are highly reductionist as they simplify complex behavioral, emotional, and cognitive symptoms of OCD down to physical factors like neurotransmitter levels or genetic alleles. In contrast, cognitive-behavioural models consider cognitive interpretations, which are slightly more holistic, though they still often ignore broader social and systemic influences.
- Determinism vs. Free Will: Biological explanations represent biological determinism, suggesting individuals have no control over developing OCD if they have the genetic predisposition. Cognitive explanations allow for some degree of agency (free will), suggesting individuals can consciously reframe their thoughts and break the compulsive cycle through cognitive-behavioural therapies.
- Practical Application: Both explanations have led to highly effective real-world treatments. The biological explanation led to the development of SSRIs, which help manage serotonin levels, while the cognitive explanation led to Exposure and Response Prevention (ERP), which targets cognitive and behavioural cycles.

Level 4 (8-10 marks):
- Evaluation is detailed and shows a very good understanding of explanations of OCD.
- The named issue (nature versus nurture) is discussed in detail, with clear links made to different explanations (e.g., biomedical vs. cognitive-behavioural).
- Other evaluative points (e.g., reductionism, usefulness, determinism) are well-developed and balanced.
- The response is well-structured and uses appropriate psychological terminology throughout.

Level 3 (6-7 marks):
- Evaluation is good and shows a reasonable understanding of explanations.
- The named issue (nature versus nurture) is discussed, but may lack depth or balanced application to the explanations.
- Other evaluative points are discussed but may be limited in detail or range.
- The response is generally well-structured and uses some psychological terminology.

Level 2 (3-5 marks):
- Evaluation is basic or limited, showing some understanding of explanations.
- The named issue is mentioned but not fully integrated or explained within the context of OCD explanations.
- Other evaluative points are superficial, list-like, or unbalanced.
- Terminology may be sparse or used incorrectly.

Level 1 (1-2 marks):
- Minimal or very brief evaluation, showing little understanding of explanations.
- The named issue is either absent or barely mentioned with no effective discussion.
- Little or no appropriate terminology used.

Theories of motivation to work explain what drives employees to perform, using different theoretical orientations.

1. The Named Issue (Individual versus Situational Explanations):
- Individual explanations: Theories like Maslow's hierarchy of needs and McClelland's achievement theory focus on internal, individual drives. Maslow suggests that motivation is driven by an individual's personal progress up a hierarchy of needs, while McClelland suggests that individuals have different dominant needs (achievement, affiliation, or power) that are intrinsic traits. These explain motivation as coming from within the person.
- Situational explanations: Theories like Vroom's expectancy theory and Adams' equity theory focus heavily on situational factors. Vroom argues that motivation is calculated based on expectations about the specific work environment (expectancy, instrumentality, valence), which are external and situational. Adams' equity theory is explicitly situational as it depends entirely on how an employee's inputs and outcomes compare to those of a reference group (co-workers) in their work environment.

2. Other Evaluative Points:
- Cultural Bias (Generalisability): Maslow's hierarchy of needs has been heavily criticised for Western, individualistic bias. The concept of self-actualisation prioritises individual growth over collective goals, which does not accurately represent motivation in collectivist cultures where belongingness or group success may be the ultimate motivator.
- Practical Application: These theories are highly useful for organizational management. For example, understanding expectancy theory allows managers to ensure that targets are achievable (high expectancy) and that rewards are valued by employees (high valence). Understanding McClelland's theory allows managers to match tasks to an employee's specific needs (e.g., giving high-achievement employees independent projects with clear feedback).
- Methodological issues: Measuring internal motivation states (such as Maslow's self-actualisation or Vroom's expectancy equations) often relies on subjective self-report questionnaires, which are prone to social desirability bias, making objective verification difficult.

Level 4 (8-10 marks):
- Evaluation is detailed and shows a very good understanding of theories of motivation to work.
- The named issue (individual versus situational explanations) is discussed in detail, with clear and accurate links to specific motivation theories.
- Other evaluative points (e.g., cultural bias, usefulness, methodology) are well-developed, balanced, and relevant.
- The response is well-structured and uses appropriate psychological terminology throughout.

Level 3 (6-7 marks):
- Evaluation is good and shows a reasonable understanding of motivation theories.
- The named issue (individual versus situational) is discussed, but may lack depth or balanced application across the theories.
- Other evaluative points are discussed but may be limited in detail or range.
- The response is generally well-structured and uses some psychological terminology.

Level 2 (3-5 marks):
- Evaluation is basic, showing some limited understanding of motivation theories.
- The named issue is mentioned but not fully integrated or explained within the context of the theories.
- Other evaluative points are superficial, list-like, or unbalanced.
- Terminology may be sparse or used incorrectly.

Level 1 (1-2 marks):
- Minimal or very brief evaluation, showing little understanding of motivation theories.
- The named issue is either absent or barely mentioned with no effective discussion.
- Little or no appropriate terminology used.

Part (a):
- The biochemical explanation posits that impulse control disorders like kleptomania involve a dysfunction in the brain's reward pathway.
- Engaging in the impulsive behaviour (stealing) triggers a release of dopamine, a neurotransmitter associated with pleasure and reinforcement.
- This chemical 'high' relieves the mounting tension Arthur experiences, reinforcing the behaviour. Over time, tolerance may develop, requiring more frequent or riskier thefts to achieve the same dopamine rush.

Part (b):
- Covert sensitisation is a form of cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) that utilizes classical conditioning to eliminate unwanted behaviours.
- The therapist instructs Arthur to close his eyes, relax, and imagine the entire process of stealing an item (the conditioned stimulus).
- At the climax of the imagined act (just as he is about to pocket the item), the therapist introduces an unpleasant, highly aversive imagined scenario (e.g., imagining getting caught, being publicly arrested, or feeling violently sick).
- By repeatedly pairing the cognitive representation of the urge to steal with these internalised, negative consequences, the positive association with stealing is replaced with an aversive response, reducing the urge.

Part (a): [2 marks total]
- 1 mark for explaining the role of dopamine/the reward system in creating a pleasurable sensation or reducing tension.
- 1 mark for applying this biochemical explanation specifically to Arthur's kleptomania (e.g., explaining how the cycle of tension and gratification is chemically reinforced).

Part (b): [3 marks total]
- 1 mark for describing the mechanism of covert sensitisation (pairing an unwanted behavior with an imagined negative stimulus/consequence).
- 1 mark for applying this to Arthur's kleptomania with a specific, realistic example (e.g., imagining stealing and then imagining vomiting, getting arrested, or public humiliation).
- 1 mark for explaining how this conditioning process leads to extinction of the urge to steal (aversive conditioning).

Part (a):
- Autonomy: Drivers experience low autonomy because their work activities, schedules, and routes are entirely determined by an automated computer system rather than their own discretion.
- Skill variety (or Task identity): The job is highly repetitive and routine. Drivers use a very narrow range of skills (only driving and basic handovers) and do not get to complete a whole, identifiable piece of work from start to finish.

Part (b):
- In Hackman and Oldham's model, the psychological state of 'experienced responsibility for outcomes' is directly influenced by the core job dimension of Autonomy.
- To increase autonomy, the logistics firm could redesign the role to give drivers more decision-making power. For example, instead of using automated routes, drivers could be given a list of destinations and allowed to self-schedule their routes and break times.
- Additionally, the firm could empower drivers to handle customer complaints or delivery issues on the spot without needing manager sign-off. This shift in control makes drivers feel personally responsible for whether their deliveries are successful.

Part (a): [2 marks total]
- 1 mark for identifying and explaining one relevant core job characteristic (e.g., Autonomy, explaining that they have no choice over routes).
- 1 mark for identifying and explaining a second relevant core job characteristic (e.g., Skill variety or Task identity, explaining the repetitive nature of the task).

Part (b): [3 marks total]
- 1 mark for explicitly linking the psychological state of 'experienced responsibility' to the core job characteristic of Autonomy.
- 1 mark for suggesting a concrete, practical job redesign strategy (e.g., self-determined routing, flexible scheduling, or decision-making power over disputes).
- 1 mark for explaining how this change leads the driver to feel personally accountable or responsible for their work performance.

Part (a):
- The therapist begins by training Clara in relaxation techniques, such as progressive muscle relaxation (PMR), deep breathing, or visualization.
- This step is essential due to the principle of 'reciprocal inhibition' (the idea that one cannot be anxious and relaxed at the same time). Clara must master these techniques so she can consciously invoke a state of calm when exposed to the phobic stimulus.

Part (b):
- An anxiety hierarchy is a customized list of scenarios involving dogs, ranked in order from the least frightening to the most frightening (e.g., looking at a drawing of a dog, standing near a leashed dog, petting an unleashed dog).
- During exposure, the therapist guides Clara to face the lowest-tier scenario (either in imagination/in vitro or in real life/in vivo) while practicing her relaxation techniques.
- Clara remains at this stage until her anxiety entirely dissipates. Once she is completely calm, they progress to the next level of the hierarchy. If she feels overwhelmed, they step back to the previous level, gradually working up to the top of the hierarchy until the phobia is extinguished.

Part (a): [2 marks total]
- 1 mark for identifying the teaching/training of relaxation techniques (e.g., deep breathing, muscle relaxation).
- 1 mark for explaining the psychological reasoning (e.g., to achieve reciprocal inhibition, ensuring she can counteract physiological arousal).

Part (b): [3 marks total]
- 1 mark for defining/explaining what an anxiety hierarchy is (a collaborative list of feared situations ranked from least to most scary).
- 1 mark for explaining the process of progression (starting at the bottom, using relaxation, and only moving up when fully calm).
- 1 mark for applying the process directly to Clara's dog phobia (e.g., progressing from low-anxiety dog scenarios to high-anxiety dog scenarios).

Part (a):
- In-group members have a high-quality LMX relationship with Dev. This is marked by mutual trust, high respect, reciprocal influence, and personal support. Dev gives them more interesting work, autonomy, and feedback, and they often perform extra-role behaviours.
- Out-group members have a low-quality LMX relationship with Dev. This is a strictly contractual, transactional relationship. Dev provides only standard supervision, and the employee performs only their basic duties with lower levels of trust or personal warmth.

Part (b):
- Dev can use Graen and Uhl-Bien's (1995) model of leadership making to transition an employee through three distinct stages:
1. Stranger stage: Dev and the employee interact formally within the boundaries of their roles. Dev must evaluate the employee's skills and identify opportunities to offer extra-role activities.
2. Acquaintance stage: Dev extends an offer of improved social exchange (e.g., assigning a more complex project, offering mentoring, or granting more autonomy). The employee must accept this offer, which tests the relationship and builds mutual trust.
3. Mature partnership stage: If the test is successful, the relationship shifts to high mutual trust, respect, and obligation. The member now behaves as part of the 'in-group', showing high commitment and receiving reciprocal support from Dev.

Part (a): [2 marks total]
- 1 mark for describing the characteristics of the high-quality 'in-group' relationship (e.g., trust, autonomy, mutual respect, extra-role behaviour).
- 1 mark for describing the characteristics of the low-quality 'out-group' relationship (e.g., formal, strictly contractual, low trust).

Part (b): [3 marks total]
- 1 mark for naming/identifying the three stages of leadership making (Stranger, Acquaintance, Mature partnership).
- 1 mark for explaining the critical transition in the 'Acquaintance' stage (offering and accepting of new tasks/social exchanges to test the relationship).
- 1 mark for applying this progression specifically to how Dev can systematically move a employee out of the out-group.

Covert sensitization is a form of classical conditioning used to treat impulse control disorders like kleptomania. The psychologist would apply it as follows:

1. **Establishment of aversive stimulus**: The therapist and client identify a highly unpleasant mental image that causes distress, such as experiencing intense physical nausea or being publicly arrested and humiliated in front of loved ones.
2. **Imagery of the sequence**: The client is asked to close their eyes, relax, and vividly imagine the sequence leading up to the theft (e.g., walking into a department store, seeing an item, and feeling the urge to pocket it).
3. **Pairing the urge with the aversion**: Right at the peak of the urge or when the client imagines touching the item, they are instructed to vividly imagine the highly unpleasant consequence (e.g., vomiting profusely over the counter or being handcuffed by police).
4. **Relief phase and practice**: The client then imagines walking away from the store without stealing and feeling an immediate sense of relief and calm. This mental rehearsal is practiced repeatedly in therapy sessions and as homework to condition a negative response to the urge to steal.

Award 1 mark for each of the following points, up to a maximum of 4 marks:
- **1 mark** for describing the underlying mechanism of classical conditioning / pairing the urge with an unpleasant imaginary stimulus.
- **1 mark** for providing a clear, relevant example of an aversive mental image (e.g., public arrest, vomiting) applied specifically to stealing/kleptomania.
- **1 mark** for outlining the structured sequence of mental imagery (imagining the approach, the urge, and then the sudden presentation of the aversion).
- **1 mark** for describing the completion of the process (e.g., imagining walking away and feeling relief, or mentioning systematic repetition/homework).

According to Victor Vroom's expectancy theory, motivation is a product of three cognitive components: Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valence. The manager can apply this theory to software programmers as follows:

1. **Expectancy (Effort \(\rightarrow\) Performance)**: The programmers must believe that if they put in additional effort, they are actually capable of completing the projects ahead of schedule. The manager can raise expectancy by providing clear project goals, removing administrative obstacles, and offering adequate technical resources and training.
2. **Instrumentality (Performance \(\rightarrow\) Outcome)**: The programmers must trust that completing the projects early will definitely lead to a promised reward. The manager can raise instrumentality by establishing a transparent, reliable incentive policy and ensuring that rewards are consistently delivered as soon as milestones are met.
3. **Valence (Value of the Outcome)**: The reward offered must be highly valued by the programmers. Instead of offering a generic reward, the manager should survey the team to identify highly attractive incentives, such as flexible work hours, work-from-home options, or direct financial bonuses.

Because motivation is multiplicative (\(M = E \times I \times V\)), the manager must ensure that none of these three components are zero, as a low level in any single component will destroy overall motivation.

Award 1 mark for each of the following points, up to a maximum of 4 marks:
- **1 mark** for explaining the application of **Expectancy** (linking programmer effort to successful early completion through support, training, or tools).
- **1 mark** for explaining the application of **Instrumentality** (linking early completion to guaranteed, transparent rewards).
- **1 mark** for explaining the application of **Valence** (ensuring the reward is personally meaningful and highly valued by the specific team).
- **1 mark** for explaining that overall motivation depends on all three components being high/positive (referencing the multiplicative relationship or formula \(M = E \times I \times V\)).

Albert Ellis's ABCDE model of REBT is applied to treat depression by identifying and challenging cognitive distortions. The therapist would structure the intervention as follows:

1. **A (Activating Event)**: The therapist helps the client identify the external trigger, for example, failing to secure a desired career promotion.
2. **B (Beliefs)**: The therapist guides the client to identify their irrational, self-defeating beliefs about this event, such as "Because I didn't get this promotion, I am a total failure and my entire career is ruined."
3. **C (Consequences)**: The therapist and client explore the cognitive and emotional consequences of these beliefs, which manifest as symptoms of unipolar depression (e.g., hopelessness, avoidance, feelings of worthlessness).
4. **D (Disputing)**: The therapist actively disputes the client's irrational beliefs using logical and empirical disputing (e.g., asking: "Is there actual evidence that one missed promotion makes you a total failure? Is it logical to evaluate your entire self-worth based on a single professional setback?").
5. **E (Effect)**: This process leads to the cognitive effect of establishing a rational philosophy, such as "While missing this promotion is disappointing, it is not catastrophic, and I remain a capable professional with future opportunities."

Award 1 mark for each of the following points, up to a maximum of 4 marks:
- **1 mark** for identifying and explaining **Activating Event (A)** and **Beliefs (B)** with relevant examples linked to career/depression.
- **1 mark** for identifying and explaining **Consequences (C)** of these career-related irrational thoughts (emotional or behavioral signs of unipolar depression).
- **1 mark** for detailing how **Disputing (D)** occurs (the therapist challenging the irrational assumptions with logical or empirical reasoning).
- **1 mark** for outlining the resulting **Effect (E)** (re-framing thoughts to develop a healthy, rational philosophy regarding professional success).

Systematic desensitisation, developed by Joseph Wolpe, is based on classical conditioning and reciprocal inhibition (one cannot be relaxed and anxious at the same time). The therapist would apply it to arachnophobia through these distinct steps:

1. **Relaxation training**: The therapist teaches the client progressive muscle relaxation, deep breathing, or visualization techniques to control physiological arousal.
2. **Anxiety hierarchy**: Together, therapist and client construct a hierarchy of feared spider-related situations. For example: ranging from the least threatening (reading the word 'spider') to moderate (looking at a picture of a spider) to the most threatening (having a live spider walk on their hand).
3. **Graduated exposure**: The client is exposed to the lowest hierarchy level (either in vitro/imagination or in vivo/real life) while utilizing their relaxation techniques.
4. **Progression through hierarchy**: Once the client can experience the low-level stimulus with complete relaxation and zero anxiety, they move to the next level. This process is repeated systematically until they can confront the most feared stimulus at the top of the hierarchy without an anxiety response.

Award 1 mark for each of the following points, up to a maximum of 4 marks:
- **1 mark** for describing **relaxation training** (teaching the client physical/mental relaxation to counteract anxiety).
- **1 mark** for explaining how the **anxiety hierarchy** is constructed (ordered from least to most threatening spider-related scenarios).
- **1 mark** for outlining the **graduated exposure process** (pairing the hierarchy stages with active relaxation, starting at the lowest stage).
- **1 mark** for explaining the rule of **progression** (only advancing to the next stage when complete relaxation/calm is achieved at the current stage).

### Part (a) Suggested Study Design
* **Research Method**: Laboratory or clinical field experiment with a randomized controlled trial (RCT) design.
* **Experimental Design**: Independent measures design.
* **Independent Variable (IV)**: The type of treatment received (Condition 1: Covert sensitisation therapy; Condition 2: Waitlist control group receiving treatment after the study).
* **Dependent Variable (DV)**: The severity and frequency of kleptomania symptoms, operationalised using the Kleptomania Symptom Assessment Scale (K-SAS) score and a self-report daily diary measuring weekly shoplifting urges and behaviours over a 12-week period.
* **Sample**: 40 participants (aged 18–60) who meet the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for kleptomania, recruited via self-referral from mental health clinics or online support groups. Participants are randomly allocated to either the treatment group or the control group.
* **Procedure**:
* *Baseline*: All participants complete the K-SAS to measure initial symptom severity.
* *Intervention*: The treatment group undergoes six weekly 50-minute sessions of covert sensitisation. Guided by a clinical psychologist, participants imagine a scenario where they are about to steal (the trigger) and immediately pair this mental image with an extremely aversive stimulus, such as experiencing intense nausea, vomiting, or public humiliation. They practice this mental rehearsal at home. The control group remains on a waitlist.
* *Post-intervention*: Both groups complete the K-SAS again at week 6 and at a 12-week follow-up. They also submit their daily logs of urges and behaviors.
* **Controls**: Standardised therapist scripts, equal duration of contact/monitoring for both groups, and blind assessors conducting the final K-SAS questionnaires to eliminate researcher bias.
* **Ethical Considerations**: Informed consent obtained; control group promised immediate covert sensitisation treatment after the 12-week trial; confidentiality of clinical data maintained.

### Part (b) Psychological and Methodological Rationale
* **Psychological Evidence**:
* The study is based on behavioural and cognitive-behavioural theories of impulse control disorders. Specifically, covert sensitisation operates on the principle of classical conditioning (specifically aversive conditioning), where an undesirable, reinforcing behavior (stealing) is paired with an unpleasant mental image (unconditioned stimulus) to eliminate the urge (conditioned response).
* This builds directly on the work of **Glover (2011)**, who demonstrated the clinical effectiveness of covert sensitisation in treating a 56-year-old female shoplifter with a 14-year history of compulsive stealing. Glover used the imagery of nausea, vomiting, and physical illness paired with the act of reaching for a target item. The patient reported elimination of urges and shoplifting behaviour at a 19-month follow-up, suggesting that covert conditioning can produce long-term cognitive and behavioural change.
* **Methodological Rationale**:
* An **independent measures experimental design** is chosen over a repeated measures design because participants cannot "unlearn" the therapy once they have undergone covert sensitisation, making a counterbalanced repeated measures design impossible due to order/carryover effects.
* The use of a **waitlist control group** is essential to isolate the specific therapeutic effects of covert sensitisation from natural recovery (spontaneous remission) or the placebo effect of receiving clinical attention.
* Operationalising the DV via both **standardised scales (K-SAS)** and **self-report diaries** provides a balance of quantitative reliability and ecological validity. K-SAS is a widely validated psychiatric tool, ensuring construct validity, while self-report diaries capture real-world behaviors outside the laboratory.

### Part (a) [10 marks]
* **9–10 marks**: The design is highly detailed, appropriate, and practically structured. Key features (IV, DV, sample, controls, procedure) are fully operationalised. The design is specific to the clinical context of kleptomania and covert sensitisation.
* **6–8 marks**: The design is appropriate and contains good detail. Most key features are clear, but some elements may lack specific operationalisation or minor details of the clinical procedure are omitted.
* **3–5 marks**: The design is basic. It may lack clarity on experimental controls, sampling, or how covert sensitisation is actually conducted. Limited clinical context.
* **1–2 marks**: Very weak design with little structure; lacks essential experimental elements.

### Part (b) [14 marks]
* **12–14 marks**: Clear and detailed explanation of both psychological evidence (such as classical conditioning and Glover, 2011) and methodological rationale (why independent measures, RCT, waitlists, and self-report measures were selected). Explicit connections made between the designed study and the evidence.
* **8–11 marks**: Good explanation of both psychological and methodological points. Some sections may be stronger than others, or the connection to the proposed study could be tighter.
* **5–7 marks**: Basic explanation of either psychological theory or methodological considerations, or a superficial coverage of both.
* **1–4 marks**: Anecdotal or highly limited explanation of the rationale, with little to no mention of relevant clinical concepts (like Glover's research or aversive conditioning) or methodological principles.