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### Analysis of Similarities
- **Objective of Peace without Annexations:** Both sources reference the concept of peace without territorial expansion. Source A claims Russia 'does not seek the annexation of foreign territories,' while Source B acknowledges this rhetoric but criticizes it as a 'deceptive screen,' showing that both must address the popular demand for peace without conquests.
- **Focus on the Revolution:** Both sources frame their arguments around the survival and success of the 1917 Revolution. Source A argues that abandoning the war would 'jeopardize the very achievements of our great revolution,' whereas Source B argues that continuing the war is a betrayal of the revolution's working-class base.
- **Claim to represent the Russian People:** Both authors claim to speak for the broad masses. Source A asserts there is a 'desire of the whole people' to fight to victory, while Source B claims to defend the 'working class and the peasantry.'

### Analysis of Differences
- **The Nature of the War:** Source A defines the war as a defensive struggle against 'German militarism' to secure a 'lasting peace based on self-determination.' In contrast, Source B labels it a 'predatory, imperialist war' and a 'capitalist slaughter' designed to benefit bankers and landlords.
- **Attitude to Allied Powers:** Source A insists on firmly respecting obligations to the Allies (Britain and France) to preserve 'national honor.' Source B rejects these alliances, claiming the Provisional Government is 'tied hand and foot by Anglo-French capital.'
- **The Path to Peace:** Source A argues that peace can only be achieved through 'decisive victory' alongside Russia's democratic allies. Source B argues that peace is impossible under the Provisional Government and can only be achieved by overthrowing it and transferring 'all power to the Soviets.'

### Contextual Evaluation and Provenance
- **Source A's Context and Purpose:** Written by Pavel Milyukov, a leading liberal Kadet and Foreign Minister. His purpose was to reassure Western allies that the fall of the Tsar would not lead to Russia's withdrawal from the war. Milyukov was highly dependent on Allied financial backing and loans to keep the Russian economy afloat. However, his stance was out of touch with the deep war-weariness of the Russian public. The publication of this position (the 'Milyukov Note') triggered the April Crisis, leading to massive street protests and his forced resignation.
- **Source B's Context and Purpose:** Written by Lenin shortly after his return to Russia and the publication of his 'April Theses.' His purpose was to expose the weaknesses of the Provisional Government, radicalize the working class, and build popular support for the Bolsheviks. By calling for 'Peace, Land, and Bread,' Lenin capitalized on the widespread unpopularity of the war. His absolute opposition to the war effort was a key factor in the eventual Bolshevik rise to power later that year.

### Marking Scheme (Total: 15 Marks)

* **Level 1 (1–3 marks):** Identifies basic, superficial similarities or differences. May rely on simple copying of text without clear comparison or historical context.
* **Level 2 (4–7 marks):** Identifies either similarities OR differences with appropriate support from the sources. Minimal or no attempt to evaluate the provenance or context of the sources.
* **Level 3 (8–10 marks):** Identifies both similarities AND differences with clear textual support from both Source A and Source B. The comparison is structured and shows a good understanding of the two opposing perspectives.
* **Level 4 (11–15 marks):** Provides a comprehensive comparison and contrast of both sources. Evaluates the reliability, utility, and perspective of the sources by integrating contextual knowledge of the Russian Revolution (such as the April Crisis, Milyukov's political position, and Lenin's political strategy) to explain *why* these differing viewpoints existed.

### Analysis of the Sources

* **Source A:** Challenges the idea of a rigid 'masterplan' for German nationalism but supports the view that unification was driven by Prussian statecraft and planned diplomacy rather than popular sentiment. Bismarck emphasizes cold realism, military strength, and seizing opportunities. As a private letter from 1857, it is highly reliable for revealing Bismarck’s genuine, pragmatic, Prussia-first mindset before he became Minister-President, showing he prioritized Prussian power over romantic German nationalism.
* **Source B:** Directly challenges the prompt's assertion. It argues that the drive for unity is a bottom-up, popular movement driven by shared culture and economic ties (the Zollverein). Diplomats are described merely as 'instruments' of this inevitable historical tide. As an editorial from the liberal *Nationalverein*, its purpose is to rally public support and assert the agency of the middle-class nationalist movement, which may downplay the actual necessity of state-level diplomatic and military power.
* **Source C:** Strongly supports the view that unification was the result of Bismarck’s planned diplomacy, presenting him as a 'sole architect' who meticulously engineered every crisis to achieve a predefined goal. However, as the memoirs of an Austrian rival (Beust) written long after the events, there is a strong motive to attribute Austria’s defeat to Bismarck’s superhuman scheming rather than Austrian diplomatic errors or systemic weaknesses.
* **Source D:** Offers a balanced synthesis but ultimately modifies the prompt's assertion. It acknowledges Bismarck's brilliant diplomacy but argues it was only the final step ('the roof') of a process whose foundations ('the walls') were built by economic integration (Zollverein) and liberal nationalist campaigns. As a speech by a National Liberal leader in the Reichstag, Bennigsen is trying to justify his party's collaboration with the conservative Bismarck while still asserting the historical importance of the liberal/middle-class economic contributions.

### Synthesis and Comparison

* **Sources supporting the view (A and C):** Both see statecraft and top-down elite action as decisive. However, they differ on the nature of this planning: Source A points to opportunistic pragmatism ('seizing political opportunities'), whereas Source C argues for a rigid, premeditated 'singular, unyielding plan'.
* **Sources challenging the view (B and D):** Both highlight the critical role of long-term structural forces, particularly economic integration and popular nationalism. Source B (written before unification) confidently claims public consciousness will dictate terms to rulers, while Source D (written after unification) takes a more conciliatory view, acknowledging Bismarck's crucial role but insisting that the groundwork laid by the people and the Zollverein made his success possible.

### Marking Scheme (25 Marks Total)

**Level 5 (21–25 marks):**
* Sustained, balanced, and highly focused evaluation of all four sources.
* Draws clear, analytical comparisons and contrasts between the sources to show how they support/challenge the claim.
* Evaluates the provenance, reliability, and historical context of the sources to weigh their utility.
* Reaches a well-supported, nuanced conclusion about the extent to which the sources support the assertion.

**Level 4 (16–20 marks):**
* Identifies support and challenge across the sources with clear explanations.
* Begins to evaluate the sources using contextual knowledge or analysis of provenance (e.g., noting the bias of a political opponent in Source C or the propaganda purpose of Source B).
* Offers a clear conclusion addressing the prompt, though it may lack the depth of Level 5.

**Level 3 (11–15 marks):**
* Provides a structured response that groups sources into those that support (A and C) and those that challenge (B and D) the assertion.
* Demonstrates good comprehension of the sources but relies primarily on their face-value content with limited evaluation of reliability or context.

**Level 2 (6–10 marks):**
* Processes the sources sequentially without clear grouping or synthesis.
* May misunderstand some sources or write a general essay on German unification with only passing reference to the texts.

**Level 1 (1–5 marks):**
* Shows little understanding of the sources or the question.
* Extremely brief or irrelevant narrative of historical facts.

The decision of the Russian Provisional Government to remain in the First World War in 1917 was driven by several key factors: 1. Treaty Obligations and International Reputation: The Provisional Government felt bound by the alliances formed under the Tsarist regime with Britain and France. To unilaterally withdraw from the war would have been seen as a betrayal of these allies, damaging Russia's long-term diplomatic standing and prestige. 2. Financial Dependence: Russia was heavily dependent on foreign loans, particularly from France and Britain, to stay financially solvent. Withdrawing from the conflict risked the immediate cutting off of these vital credit lines, which would have led to total economic collapse. 3. National Pride and Defensism: Many members of the Provisional Government, including Alexander Kerensky, believed in 'revolutionary defensism'—the idea that they were now defending a free, democratic Russia against German autocratic aggression. They argued that a German victory would result in the restoration of autocracy or the loss of vast Russian territories. 4. Domestic Legitimacy and Unity: It was hoped that a successful, coordinated offensive (which later manifested as the Kerensky Offensive in June 1917) would rally the population, boost national morale, and legitimise the authority of the Provisional Government until a Constituent Assembly could be democratically elected.

Level 1 (1-2 marks): Identifies general points about the war or the Provisional Government but lacks specific causal explanation. Level 2 (3-5 marks): Identifies reasons for continuing the war (e.g., alliances, money) but these are listed rather than fully explained. Level 3 (6-8 marks): Explains one or more reasons in detail, showing a clear understanding of the pressures facing the Provisional Government in 1917. Level 4 (9-10 marks): Explains multiple distinct reasons (e.g., financial pressure, ideological defensism, alliance loyalty) with excellent historical depth and analytical focus on the question.

The Directory faced persistent instability between 1795 and 1799 for several reasons: 1. Extremes of the Political Spectrum: The Directory was a moderate regime that faced constant threats from both the radical Left (Jacobins and Babeuf's Conspiracy of Equals) and the royalist Right. Neither side accepted the legitimacy of the Thermidorian settlement. 2. Constitutional Weakness: The Constitution of Year III mandated annual elections for a third of the legislative councils. This created constant political campaigning and uncertainty. When elections did not produce the desired moderate results, the Directory repeatedly intervened and annulled the outcomes (such as the Coup of Fructidor in 1797 and the Coup of Floréal in 1798), which undermined the democratic credibility of the republic. 3. Economic and Financial Crises: The regime inherited a bankrupt treasury and a hyper-inflated currency (the assignat). Although they introduced the mandats territoriaux and eventually returned to metal currency, these measures caused deflation, agricultural distress, and widespread public discontent. 4. Dependence on the Military: Because the Directory lacked a popular base of support, it increasingly relied on the army to put down domestic rebellions and maintain order (e.g., Vendémiaire and Prairial). This politicised the army and paved the way for military generals, ultimately leading to Napoleon Bonaparte's coup in 1799.

Level 1 (1-2 marks): Simple, descriptive assertions about the Directory or the French Revolution. Level 2 (3-5 marks): Identifies basic reasons for instability (e.g., riots, Napoleon, bad economy) but lacks depth of explanation. Level 3 (6-8 marks): Explains specific factors (such as the constitutional flaws, threat of royalists/Jacobins, or economic failure) with clear focus on the question. Level 4 (9-10 marks): Explains a range of interconnected factors (political, economic, constitutional, and military) to show a comprehensive understanding of why the Directory could not achieve stability.

Candidates should analyze both the successes and failures of the Directory in restoring stability to France between 1795 and 1799.

Arguments suggesting the Directory did restore stability:
- It ended the Reign of Terror and the radical phase of the Revolution, establishing a more moderate, middle-class republic.
- The Constitution of Year III established a balanced bicameral legislature (Council of Five Hundred and Council of Ancients) and an executive of five directors, designed to prevent the rise of another dictatorship.
- It survived multiple serious threats to its authority, such as the royalist Vendémiaire uprising (1795) and Babeuf’s Conspiracy of the Equals (1796).
- Economically, the Directory eventually abandoned the worthless assignats and introduced a new currency (mandats territoriaux and later specie), which helped control runaway inflation.
- Military successes abroad, led by generals like Napoleon Bonaparte, brought in revenue from conquered territories, easing the state's financial burden.

Arguments suggesting the Directory failed to restore stability:
- Political division remained severe; the Directory was constantly threatened by royalists on the right and Jacobins on the left.
- It undermined its own democratic legitimacy through the Coup of Fructidor (1797) and the Coup of Floréal (1798), where election results were annulled to keep moderate republicans in power.
- The regime became increasingly dependent on the army to maintain order and enforce its will, which ultimately paved the way for the military coup of Brumaire.
- Economic hardship persisted for the working classes; food shortages and high prices remained common, while corruption among directors like Barras undermined public trust.
- The reliance on war plunder to sustain the economy created an unstable financial model dependent on continuous military success.

Level 5 (16-20 marks): Answers show a clear, analytical, and balanced understanding of the period. A sustained argument is developed, weighing the political and economic achievements against the systemic weaknesses of the Directory, culminating in a well-supported judgment.
Level 4 (11-15 marks): Explains both sides of the argument with good historical knowledge of the Directory (e.g., currency changes, coup of Fructidor, military reliance), though the balance or depth of analysis may be slightly uneven.
Level 3 (6-10 marks): Answers are primarily descriptive of the Directory's rule or focus almost entirely on either successes or failures without providing a balanced counter-argument.
Level 2 (3-5 marks): Identifies some basic facts about the post-Jacobin period but lacks structure, focus on 'stability', or analytical depth.
Level 1 (1-2 marks): Minimal or highly irrelevant response.

Candidates should analyze the extent to which the New Economic Policy (NEP) deviated from Marxist-Leninist ideology, contrasting ideological compromises with pragmatic political survival.

Arguments that the NEP was a betrayal of Communist principles:
- It reintroduced private enterprise, allowing peasants to sell their surplus grain on the open market for profit, which directly contradicted the socialist goal of collective ownership.
- The re-establishment of a cash-and-market economy replaced the moneyless system envisioned during War Communism.
- It permitted small-scale private ownership of factories and retail businesses, leading to the emergence of a new capitalist class (the 'Nepmen') and wealthy peasants (the 'Kulaks'), thereby widening economic inequality.
- Prominent Bolsheviks, including Trotsky and Left Communists, viewed the policy as a dangerous step backward toward capitalism and a betrayal of the urban proletariat.

Arguments that the NEP was not a betrayal (or was a justified ideological maneuver):
- The Bolshevik state retained control over the 'commanding heights' of the economy: heavy industry, coal, steel, banking, foreign trade, and transport systems.
- Lenin argued that the NEP was a temporary tactical retreat ('one step backward, two steps forward') necessary to rescue the country from total economic collapse, peasant rebellions (e.g., Tambov), and military mutinies (e.g., Kronstadt).
- The absolute political monopoly of the Communist Party remained unchallenged; the 1921 Party Congress actually banned internal factions, strengthening Lenin’s centralized control.
- The policy succeeded in stabilizing the agricultural sector, feeding the cities, and preserving the survival of the world's only socialist state, without which the Communist experiment would have ended.

Level 5 (16-20 marks): Answers demonstrate an excellent understanding of the ideological debates surrounding the NEP. Evaluates both the capitalist elements introduced and the socialist controls retained, reaching a sophisticated, balanced conclusion.
Level 4 (11-15 marks): Explains both sides of the debate, utilizing solid historical detail (e.g., War Communism context, commanding heights, Nepmen, Lenin’s justifications) but may lack the analytical depth of Level 5.
Level 3 (6-10 marks): Offers a narrative of the transition from War Communism to the NEP, with limited focus on the debate about 'betrayal', or presents a mostly one-sided argument.
Level 2 (3-5 marks): Identifies basic facts about the NEP but lacks analysis, focus on the question, or clear historical structure.
Level 1 (1-2 marks): Minimal or highly irrelevant response.

Analysis of Similarities: Both Source A and Source B agree on the core nature of President Johnson's Reconstruction policies: they are characterized by leniency, rapid restoration, and a hands-off approach to Southern internal affairs (such as not enforcing black suffrage). Source A refers to this as 'swift restoration and leniency' and the absence of 'harsh military rule,' while Source B describes it as 'hastily pardoning rebel leaders' and 'the President's leniency.' Both sources also recognize that Johnson's policy does not impose black suffrage or federal control over voter qualifications in the South. Analysis of Differences: The two sources differ fundamentally in their assessment of the policy's constitutional legitimacy, its political consequences, and its impact on the freedmen. 1) Constitutional legitimacy and national unity: Source A argues that Johnson's policy is the 'only path that aligns with the Constitution' and promotes 'national harmony' by respecting state rights. Source B, conversely, calls the policy a 'betrayal of the Union dead' and an encouragement for Southern whites to 'defy federal authority.' 2) Impact on Southern leadership: Source A claims the policy is restoring 'peace and economic stability,' whereas Source B asserts it has allowed the 'very class that launched the rebellion' to regain political power and defeat the purpose of the war. 3) Impact on freedmen: Source A dismisses demands for black suffrage and radical changes as 'partisan malice.' Source B argues that the policy has left freedmen vulnerable to 'Black Codes' that reduce them to 'virtual serfdom' and demands that Congress step in to protect their civil rights. Contextual Evaluation: The contrasting views reflect the intense political struggle over Reconstruction in late 1865 and early 1866. Source A reflects the Northern Democratic position. Democrats wanted a quick restoration of Southern states to the Union to rebuild their national political coalition and firmly opposed the expansion of federal power over states' rights or civil rights. James Brooks' speech occurred just as Congress reconvened and prepared to challenge Johnson's executive policies. Source B represents the Radical Republican viewpoint, which became increasingly dominant as details of Southern 'Black Codes' and the election of Confederate leaders (such as Confederate Vice President Alexander Stephens) reached the North in late 1865. The Chicago Tribune was a leading voice of this faction, arguing that Johnson's executive leniency had surrendered the fruits of Northern victory and that Congress had a moral and constitutional duty to intervene to protect loyal unionists and freedmen.

Level 4 (12–15 marks): Identifies and explains both similarities and differences, and evaluates the utility/reliability of the sources using historical context to explain the different perspectives. Level 3 (8–11 marks): Explains both similarities and differences between the sources but without effective evaluation of the sources' context. Level 2 (4–7 marks): Explains either similarities or differences between the sources. Level 1 (1–3 marks): Identifies basic similarities or differences without detailed explanation or context, or simply paraphrases the sources. Level 0 (0 marks): No creditworthy response.

**Introduction**
Candidates should identify the central debate within the sources regarding the efficacy of the New Deal in resolving the Great Depression. A strong answer will group the sources according to how they support or challenge the assertion, evaluate their reliability using contextual knowledge, and reach a nuanced conclusion.

**Sources supporting the view that the New Deal was successful:**
- **Source A**: Roosevelt provides a highly positive assessment of the New Deal's achievements. He highlights practical outcomes (humming factories, secure banks, restored hope) and specific programs (CCC, WPA, AAA). To evaluate this, candidates can note that as President seeking re-election in 1936, FDR has a strong political incentive to exaggerate success. However, his claims are supported by historical facts, such as the stabilizing impact of the Emergency Banking Act and the immediate relief provided by the WPA.
- **Source C**: This source provides first-hand evidence of the success of federal relief. The writer acknowledges that the WPA saved her family from starvation and expresses gratitude. This source is highly credible as a private, unsolicited letter to the First Lady, representing the authentic voice of working-class families who benefited directly from the safety net.

**Sources challenging the view that the New Deal was successful:**
- **Source B**: This source argues that the New Deal was an expensive failure that stifled private investment. It claims that unemployment remained high and that the program created federal dependency. Candidates can evaluate this source by noting its provenance: a conservative Midwestern newspaper in 1938, a period when the 'Roosevelt Recession' of 1937-38 gave critics fresh ammunition to argue that the recovery was artificial and unsustainable.
- **Source D**: This source argues that the New Deal failed because it did not go far enough. It did not resolve systemic inequalities or redistribute wealth, instead favoring corporate monopolies. Candidates can contextualize this by identifying the critic's alignment with populist movements of the mid-1930s (such as Huey Long’s 'Share Our Wealth' or Father Coughlin's speeches), which capitalized on lingering distress to push for radical reforms.
- **Source C (As a challenge)**: Source C also functions as a challenge, as the writer notes that WPA wages were very low, private sector jobs were still unavailable, and they lived in constant fear. This highlights that the New Deal provided temporary relief rather than a permanent cure for unemployment.

**Conclusion**
In conclusion, the sources show that the New Deal was highly successful in providing emergency relief and restoring public confidence (as shown in Source A and the positive aspects of Source C), but failed to bring about a full, self-sustaining economic recovery or address deep-seated structural issues (as highlighted by Source B, Source D, and the anxieties in Source C). Evaluative synthesis shows that while the New Deal prevented total collapse, it did not fully resolve the economic challenges until the mobilization for World War II.

**Level 5 (21–25 marks)**:
- Evaluates a range of sources systematically to assess their reliability and utility.
- Explores the perspective, context, and motive of the sources (e.g., FDR's electioneering in 1936, the conservative pushback during the 1937-38 recession, and populist agendas in 1935).
- Integrates precise historical knowledge to resolve the conflicts between the sources.
- Reaches a balanced, analytical conclusion that directly addresses the prompt.

**Level 4 (16–20 marks)**:
- Explains how some sources support and others challenge the statement.
- Attempts to evaluate the sources using contextual knowledge or looking at their provenance, though this may not be applied consistently to all sources.
- Shows a clear understanding of the historical debate surrounding the New Deal's economic impact.

**Level 3 (11–15 marks)**:
- Identifies which sources support/challenge the view.
- Summarizes the content of the sources well but relies more on description than evaluation.
- Limited use of contextual knowledge to test the validity of the sources.

**Level 2 (6–10 marks)**:
- Identifies superficial similarities or differences between the sources.
- Relies on basic comprehension of the sources without deep analysis of their historical context.

**Level 1 (1–5 marks)**:
- Writes a general essay on the New Deal with little or no direct reference to the provided sources, or merely copies fragments of the text without analysis.

The Radical Republicans sought a more severe Reconstruction policy for several interconnected reasons. First, they were deeply alarmed by the quick re-emergence of Southern defiance immediately after the Civil War. Under President Andrew Johnson's lenient Presidential Reconstruction, Southern states passed 'Black Codes' designed to restrict the freedom of African Americans and compel them to work in a labor economy based on low wages or debt. This convinced Radicals that the South had not truly accepted its defeat. Second, the Radicals held a genuine ideological commitment to civil rights and believed the federal government had a moral duty to guarantee legal equality and voting rights for freedmen, which they sought to secure through the Civil Rights Act of 1866 and the Fourteenth Amendment. Third, there was a strong political motivation. The Radicals knew that if Southern states were readmitted to the Union without restrictions, the Democratic Party would quickly regain control of Congress, especially since the abolition of the Three-Fifths Compromise increased the South's congressional representation. Finally, the Radicals were determined to dismantle the traditional planter aristocracy of the South, viewing them as the instigators of the rebellion who needed to be punished and stripped of political power to prevent future secessionist movements.

Level 1 (1-3 marks): Identifies or lists reasons without explanation. For example, stating that they disliked Andrew Johnson, wanted to protect former slaves, or wanted to punish the South. Level 2 (4-6 marks): Explains one reason in detail, providing historical context such as the implementation of the Black Codes or the political struggle between Congress and President Johnson. Level 3 (7-10 marks): Explains two or more reasons clearly. To achieve the top of this level, the response must demonstrate a strong understanding of how different factors—such as ideological goals for civil rights, political survival for the Republican Party, and reaction to Southern resistance—converged to drive the shift toward Radical Reconstruction.

President Franklin Roosevelt introduced the Second New Deal in 1935 due to a combination of political, judicial, and economic pressures. First, Roosevelt faced significant political challenges from the left and populist movements. Figures like Senator Huey Long, with his 'Share Our Wealth' campaign, Dr. Francis Townsend, advocating for elderly pensions, and Father Charles Coughlin, were gaining massive public support by arguing that the First New Deal had not gone far enough to help ordinary Americans. Roosevelt launched the Second New Deal to pre-empt these critics and secure his coalition ahead of the 1936 presidential election. Second, the judicial branch posed a severe threat to his initial programs. The U.S. Supreme Court began ruling key components of the First New Deal unconstitutional, most notably striking down the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) in the Schechter Poultry case. This forced the administration to draft new, constitutionally viable legislation to protect labor and regulate industry. Third, despite the measures of 1933-1934, economic recovery remained slow and unemployment stayed stubbornly high. This prompted a shift in administration strategy away from temporary emergency relief and toward permanent structural reforms, such as the Social Security Act and the Wagner Act, which established a national safety net and protected the collective bargaining rights of workers.

Level 1 (1-3 marks): Identifies or lists reasons, such as mentioning the influence of Huey Long, the Supreme Court rulings, or the ongoing depression. Level 2 (4-6 marks): Explains one reason with relevant supporting details, such as detailing how the Supreme Court's decisions invalidated early recovery measures or how political rivals pressured FDR. Level 3 (7-10 marks): Explains two or more reasons with clear analysis. For the highest marks, the candidate must show how these different pressures—the political threat from the left, the legal roadblocks from the judiciary, and the economic need for long-term security—collectively forced FDR to transition from recovery to structural reform.

To answer this question effectively, candidates should analyze the significance of the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 and compare it with other key events of the 1850s to assess which was the most critical turning point in the escalation of sectional tensions.

Arguments supporting the significance of the Kansas-Nebraska Act:
- It repealed the Missouri Compromise of 1820, which had maintained a fragile peace regarding the expansion of slavery for over three decades.
- It introduced the concept of popular sovereignty, leading directly to physical conflict ('Bleeding Kansas') as pro- and anti-slavery settlers rushed to control the territory.
- It shattered the national political party system: it caused the collapse of the Whig Party and led directly to the creation of the purely sectional Republican Party, signaling the end of national political coalitions.

Arguments for alternative turning points:
- The Compromise of 1850: Specifically, the Fugitive Slave Act radicalized moderate Northerners who were forced to participate in the return of escaped slaves, transforming slavery from a distant political debate into an immediate moral issue.
- The Dred Scott v. Sandford Supreme Court Decision (1857): This ruled that Congress had no power to ban slavery in US territories, rendering compromise virtually impossible and outraging Northern Republicans.
- John Brown's Raid on Harpers Ferry (1859): This convinced many white Southerners that Northerners were actively actively plotting armed slave insurrections, making secession seem like the only secure option for the South.
- The Election of Abraham Lincoln (1860): The ultimate catalyst, demonstrating that a candidate could win the presidency without a single southern electoral vote, which prompted immediate secession starting with South Carolina.

Conclusion:
Candidates should offer a balanced synthesis, evaluating whether the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 was the critical turning point because it destroyed the political consensus and institutionalized violence, or if later events like Lincoln's election or Dred Scott were the actual points of no return.

Level 5 (16–20 marks): Answers will demonstrate clear understanding of the complexity of the pre-Civil War period. They will offer a balanced and analytical discussion comparing the Kansas-Nebraska Act with at least two other turning points. Arguments will be supported by precise historical evidence, and a sustained, reasoned judgment will be reached.

Level 4 (11–15 marks): Answers will show good knowledge of the Kansas-Nebraska Act and other events. The response will be analytical but may be slightly unbalanced, focusing heavily on either the Act itself or alternative turning points. Historical evidence will be mostly accurate.

Level 3 (6–10 marks): Answers will contain relevant historical descriptions of the events of the 1850s, but with limited analysis. The response might read like a narrative of the causes of the Civil War without clearly weighing which event was the most significant turning point.

Level 2 (3–5 marks): Answers will be superficial, offering vague descriptions of the Kansas-Nebraska Act or other events of the era with little to no analytical focus.

Level 1 (1–2 marks): Little relevant content, showing major misconceptions or offering only a few lines of unstructured writing.

To construct a successful response, candidates must compare the aims, methods, and outcomes of both the First and Second New Deals to evaluate their respective success.

Arguments supporting the success of the Second New Deal:
- It focused on long-term structural reform and social justice. The Social Security Act (1935) created a permanent safety net for the elderly, unemployed, and disabled, changing the relationship between citizens and the state.
- The Wagner Act (National Labor Relations Act, 1935) protected workers' rights to unionize, which led to a massive increase in union membership, higher wages, and improved labor standards.
- The Works Progress Administration (WPA) was more permanent and far-reaching in its employment efforts than earlier emergency measures, employing millions of people on public works projects, including artists and writers.

Arguments supporting the success of the First New Deal:
- It addressed the immediate emergency of 1933. The Emergency Banking Act and the Glass-Steagall Act stabilized the financial system, restored confidence, and prevented a total economic collapse.
- Relief agencies like the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) and Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) provided immediate employment and survival to millions in desperate need.
- The Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) and National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) attempted structural reorganization of agriculture and industry, successfully raising crop prices and establishing basic industrial codes (though NIRA was ultimately ruled unconstitutional).

Limitations of both phases:
- Neither New Deal fully cured the Great Depression; unemployment remained high until wartime mobilization began.
- The First New Deal faced severe constitutional challenges (schemes ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court).
- The Second New Deal faced mounting conservative opposition, and Roosevelt's attempts to reform the Supreme Court ('court-packing') tarnished its political momentum, leading to the economic recession of 1937–1938.

Conclusion:
Candidates should conclude with a comparative judgment. They can argue that while the First New Deal saved the nation from immediate collapse (crisis management), the Second New Deal was more successful in the long run because it created a modern welfare state and lasting economic reforms.

Level 5 (16–20 marks): Answers will show a clear understanding of the distinction between the First and Second New Deals. They will feature balanced, analytical comparison, assessing both short-term relief/recovery and long-term reform. A sustained, well-reasoned judgment will be made with strong supporting historical evidence.

Level 4 (11–15 marks): Answers will identify the key differences between the two phases. The evaluation of their success will be analytical, though it may be somewhat stronger on one phase than the other. Historical knowledge will be accurate and well-utilized.

Level 3 (6–10 marks): Answers will describe the various alphabet agencies and programs from both periods but will provide limited critical comparison or assessment of their comparative success. The essay may read more like a general list of New Deal programs.

Level 2 (3–5 marks): Answers will show basic knowledge of Franklin D. Roosevelt's policies but will confuse the phases or write in very generalized terms about the New Deal.

Level 1 (1–2 marks): Minimal relevant response, showing major inaccuracies or lack of understanding of the topic.

Indicative Content:

Similarities:
- Both sources acknowledge that the threat of a wider European war influenced the League's actions (Source A states they had to avoid 'a conflict that could have engulfed Europe', and Source B states the great powers acted 'to avoid the risk of war').
- Both sources recognize that the League's actions did not stop Italian aggression (Source A admits they sought a compromise rather than a military solution, and Source B notes that Ethiopia was 'abandoned to an aggressor' and suffered 'systematic destruction').
- Both sources identify that the success of collective security depends on the willingness of its members to act.

Differences:
- Source A justifies the League's cautious and conciliatory approach as a practical necessity, arguing that unilateral or hasty action would lead to war, whereas Source B strongly condemns this caution as a betrayal of League principles and 'justice'.
- Source A portrays the League as an instrument that can only act as far as its collective membership allows, shifting responsibility away from individual major powers. Source B directly blames the 'great powers' for prioritizing 'diplomatic combinations' over their covenant obligations.
- Source A holds out hope for 'negotiated settlement', while Source B sees the outcome as an absolute failure that has 'signed [the League's] own death warrant'.

Evaluation of Provenance:
- Source A: Samuel Hoare is speaking to the British Parliament in December 1935, immediately following the public backlash against the secret Hoare-Laval Pact. He has a strong motive to defend his diplomatic efforts, minimize British responsibility for the crisis, and justify appeasement to an anxious British public and legislature.
- Source B: Haile Selassie is speaking in June 1936 after his country has been conquered by Italy. His motive is to appeal to the conscience of the international community, shame the great powers (Britain and France) for their lack of action, and issue a dire warning that the failure of collective security will eventually threaten the sovereignty of European nations as well.

Level 4 (12-15 marks): Identifies both similarities and differences, and evaluates the sources' utility/reliability using contextual knowledge and provenance to explain why these perspectives differ.

Level 3 (8-11 marks): Identifies both similarities and differences between the sources, but with limited or no evaluation of the sources.

Level 2 (4-7 marks): Identifies similarities OR differences only, with no evaluation.

Level 1 (1-3 marks): Writes about the sources but does not make a direct, valid comparison, or merely summarises the text without answering the specific prompt.

In evaluating the sources, candidates should analyze the arguments for and against the hypothesis that the League's failure was due to the self-interest of its leading powers.

Arguments supporting the hypothesis:
- Source B directly blames the leading European powers (specifically Britain and France) for prioritizing their commercial and colonial interests in Asia over collective security. Koo explicitly states that the League was 'sacrificed on the altar of great power self-interest.'
- Source A can be interpreted as supporting this view, despite Simon's defensive tone. Simon admits that Britain's response is governed by its 'current economic distress' and a 'prudent duty' to avoid escalation, which critics (and Source B) would characterize as national self-interest disguised as realism.

Arguments challenging the hypothesis:
- Source A argues that the failure to act is due to practical constraints: the lack of a standing army, the 'immense distance' of the crisis, the global economic situation, and the fact that the 'machinery of collective security lacks universal participation' (indirectly referencing the absence of key powers like the US).
- Source C argues that the League failed because its Western-centric, abstract theories were completely unsuited to regional realities in East Asia, and because it failed to recognize Japan's 'legitimate' security concerns. It explicitly denies that the failure was due to individual powers' self-interest.
- Source D, an external American source, argues that the failure was structural. Without US membership and during a global depression, the League lacked the necessary global reach and capability. It argues that structural weaknesses and democratic constraints during an economic crisis made action impossible, exonerating the leading European powers of simple 'lack of political will' or selfish inaction.

Evaluation of Provenance and Context:
- Source A: As Foreign Secretary, Simon has a strong motive to justify British inaction to a domestic public enduring the Great Depression. He frames self-preservation as 'prudent duty' rather than 'selfish disregard', making his source useful for showing the official British perspective but highly subjective.
- Source B: Wellington Koo is a diplomat representing China, the victim of aggression. His role is to exert moral pressure on the League. While his accusation of great power self-interest is supported by historical evidence (Britain and France indeed wished to protect their colonies), his perspective is highly partisan.
- Source C: The Japanese government is attempting to justify its aggression and unilateral withdrawal from the League. By blaming the League's 'abstract theories' and 'bias', Japan seeks to deflect blame from its own violation of international law.
- Source D: The US newspaper represents a country that chose not to join the League. The editorial's emphasis on structural weaknesses and the absence of the US can be seen as a justification of American isolationism, yet it provides a detached, realistic appraisal of the League’s structural impotence during the Great Depression.

Conclusion:
Ultimately, while Source B strongly supports the view, and Source A provides implicit evidence of self-interest, Sources A, C, and D offer powerful counterarguments pointing to structural, economic, and regional factors. The sources suggest that self-interest was a major factor, but it was inextricably linked to the structural absence of the US and the devastating impact of the global depression.

Level 5 (21–25 marks): Evaluates sources to decide on their utility and reliability; reaches a balanced, well-supported conclusion based on sources and historical context. Candidates will clearly distinguish between support and challenge and evaluate the motives, context, and provenance of the sources.

Level 4 (16–20 marks): Identifies both support and challenge from the sources; begins to evaluate the reliability/provenance of sources in context, but may lack a fully integrated, balanced conclusion.

Level 3 (11–15 marks): Identifies support and challenge from the sources, but with limited or no evaluation/cross-referencing. The response may treat sources as simple facts.

Level 2 (6–10 marks): Identifies elements that support OR challenge the hypothesis, but not both; or offers simple summaries of the sources without directly linking them to the hypothesis.

Level 1 (1–5 marks): Writes about the topic with little or no direct reference to the sources.

Level 0 (0 marks): No response or response does not address the question.

Accept: Well-structured evaluations that analyze all four sources and place them in the historical context of the Manchurian Crisis, the Great Depression, and the structural limitations of the League of Nations.
Reject: Narrative essays on the Manchurian Crisis that do not utilize the provided sources.

The Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902 was a landmark agreement prompted by several key strategic factors:

1. **The Russian Threat in East Asia**: Both nations were deeply concerned by Russia's expansionist policies in the Far East, particularly its occupation of Manchuria following the Boxer Rebellion and its growing influence in Korea. Britain feared Russian threats to its lucrative trade in China, while Japan viewed Russian presence in Korea as a direct threat to its national security.

2. **The End of 'Splendid Isolation'**: Britain realized that maintaining its global empire without allies was becoming increasingly difficult. The Boer War (1899–1902) had exposed British military vulnerabilities and diplomatic isolation in Europe. An alliance with Japan allowed Britain to secure its interests in the Pacific without having to maintain a massive naval presence there, freeing up resources for European waters.

3. **Japan's Search for International Recognition**: Following the Triple Intervention of 1895, where Russia, France, and Germany forced Japan to return the Liaodong Peninsula won from China, Japan realized it needed a major European ally. Aligning with Britain, the world's preeminent naval power, provided Japan with the diplomatic backing and security guarantee it needed to counter Russian influence in East Asia.

Award marks based on the following levels of response:

**Level 4 (9–10 marks)**: Explains multiple reasons, showing clear historical understanding. Explanations are fully developed and show how these factors combined to make the alliance mutually beneficial.

**Level 3 (6–8 marks)**: Explains one or more reasons. For example, explains how Russian expansion threatened both British commercial interests and Japanese security interests, or explains Britain's desire to end its isolation.

**Level 2 (3–5 marks)**: Identifies reasons but lacks deep explanation. Candidates might list reasons such as fear of Russia, the Boer War, or Japan's desire for prestige without fully analyzing how these led to the treaty.

**Level 1 (1–2 marks)**: Simple, general assertions with little historical accuracy or relevance.

**Level 0 (0 marks)**: No response or response does not address the question.

The Washington Naval Conference (1921–1922) was called by the United States for several interrelated reasons:

1. **Preventing a Costly Naval Arms Race**: After the First World War, a dangerous and expensive naval building competition was developing between the United States, Great Britain, and Japan. All three nations faced severe post-war economic strains, and their governments were under immense domestic pressure to reduce military spending and national debt.

2. **Reducing Tensions in East Asia and the Pacific**: Relations between the US and Japan had grown increasingly strained. Japan had expanded its influence in China (e.g., the Twenty-One Demands) and the Pacific during WWI, which threatened the US 'Open Door' policy in China and American security interests in the Philippines.

3. **Resolving the Anglo-Japanese Alliance**: The United States was deeply suspicious of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, which was due for renewal. The US feared it could be dragged into a conflict with Britain if tensions with Japan escalated. Convening the conference allowed the US to pressure Britain into letting the alliance expire in favor of a multi-power agreement (which became the Four-Power Treaty).

Award marks based on the following levels of response:

**Level 4 (9–10 marks)**: Explains multiple, distinct reasons for the conference, demonstrating excellent contextual knowledge of post-WWI international relations and naval rivalries.

**Level 3 (6–8 marks)**: Explains one or two reasons in detail. For example, focuses successfully on the financial burden of the arms race and the growing geopolitical friction between the US and Japan in the Pacific.

**Level 2 (3–5 marks)**: Identifies reasons but offers limited explanation. Candidates might mention that countries wanted to prevent war or save money, but without specific historical detail regarding the US, Britain, and Japan.

**Level 1 (1–2 marks)**: Fragmented or very general assertions about disarmament or post-war peace.

**Level 0 (0 marks)**: No response or response does not address the question.

Candidates should construct a balanced argument analyzing the role of the Locarno Treaty alongside other contributing factors to the improvement in European relations during the 1920s.

**Arguments for the Locarno Treaty as the primary reason:**
- **Franco-German Reconciliation:** It secured the post-WWI western borders, with Germany voluntarily accepting its frontiers with France and Belgium, greatly reducing French security anxieties.
- **Demilitarization of the Rhineland:** Germany confirmed the permanent demilitarization of the Rhineland, which reassured France.
- **Diplomatic Breakthrough:** Led directly to Germany's admission into the League of Nations in 1926 with a permanent seat on the Council, shifting Germany from an outcast nation to an active diplomatic partner.
- **The 'Locarno Spirit':** It fostered a period of optimism and belief in peaceful diplomacy, spearheaded by foreign ministers Aristide Briand (France) and Gustav Stresemann (Germany).

**Arguments against / Alternative factors:**
- **Economic Stabilization (The Dawes Plan, 1924):** Prior to Locarno, the Dawes Plan resolved the immediate Ruhr Crisis, restructured Germany's reparations, and secured vital US loans, which underpinned the economic recovery essential for political goodwill.
- **The Young Plan (1929):** Further reduced and finalized the schedule for German reparations, demonstrating continued cooperation.
- **The Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928):** Sixty-five nations signed an agreement renouncing war as an instrument of national policy, demonstrating a global, rather than just European, push for peace.
- **Limitations of Locarno:** The treaty notably ignored Germany's eastern borders (with Poland and Czechoslovakia), leaving a dangerous loophole that caused anxiety in Eastern Europe and suggested that the 'improvement' was selective and fragile.

**Conclusion:**
While the Locarno Treaty was the political centerpiece of European reconciliation, it could not have succeeded without the economic foundations laid by the Dawes Plan. Thus, the improvement in relations was the result of mutually reinforcing economic and diplomatic initiatives.

Level 5 (16-20 marks): Answers will demonstrate a clear understanding of the complexity of the question, providing a sustained, balanced, and analytical evaluation of the Locarno Treaty in comparison with other factors (such as the Dawes Plan, Kellogg-Briand Pact, and economic conditions). Clear, well-supported arguments with precise historical detail.

Level 4 (11-15 marks): Answers will write a balanced response that addresses both the significance of the Locarno Treaty and other factors, but the analysis may lack the depth or integration of Level 5. Good historical knowledge is displayed.

Level 3 (6-10 marks): Answers will tend to be descriptive rather than analytical, focusing on the details of the Locarno Treaty or general 1920s international relations without a clear comparative focus or balanced evaluation.

Level 2 (3-5 marks): Answers will show limited knowledge of the topic, perhaps offering brief, superficial descriptions of the Locarno Treaty with little or no link to the broader context of the 1920s.

Level 1 (1-2 marks): Fragmented or highly inaccurate remarks with little relevance to the question.

Candidates should construct a balanced argument assessing the weight of economic drivers against political, ideological, and strategic factors in shaping Japanese expansionism during the 1930s.

**Arguments for economic factors as the primary driver:**
- **Impact of the Great Depression:** Japan was hit hard by the collapse of global trade, particularly its silk export market to the US. This led to massive rural poverty and unemployment, driving the belief that economic self-sufficiency was vital.
- **Resource Scarcity:** Japan lacked essential industrial raw materials (oil, iron, rubber, coal). Acquiring territories like Manchuria ('the life-line of Japan') was seen as crucial to secure these resources.
- **Population Pressure:** A rapidly growing population created pressure on domestic agricultural land, making territorial expansion to Manchuria and Northern China attractive for resettlement.
- **Trade Barriers:** Rising Western protectionism (such as the US Smoot-Hawley Tariff) convinced Japanese policymakers that they could not rely on open international trade and needed to establish a self-contained economic bloc (the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere).

**Arguments for other factors (political, military, ideological):**
- **Rise of Militarism and Nationalism:** The growing power of the military within domestic politics (and the decline of civilian democratic government) fostered an aggressive, expansionist foreign policy. Groupings like the Kwantung Army acted independently of Tokyo.
- **Imperial Ambition and Pan-Asianism:** Ideology played a major role. Concepts of 'Hakko Ichiu' (bringing the eight corners of the world under one roof) and freeing Asia from Western imperialism motivated military elites.
- **Strategic Concerns:** Fear of Soviet expansionism in East Asia and a desire to preemptively secure defensive buffer zones in Manchuria and Korea influenced military planning.
- **Weak International Resistance:** The failure of the League of Nations to act decisively during the Manchurian Crisis (1931) encouraged Japan's military to pursue further expansion into China (1937).

**Conclusion:**
Economic crises provided the urgent justification and public support for expansion, but the specific, aggressive form this expansion took was dictated by deep-seated militarism, imperial ideology, and strategic geopolitical rivalries. Therefore, economic factors acted as a powerful trigger, but cannot be separated from political and ideological dynamics.

Level 5 (16-20 marks): Answers will demonstrate a highly analytical approach, systematically comparing economic pressures against political, ideological, and military factors. The argument will be sustained, well-supported with specific historical details (e.g., Manchurian Crisis, role of the Kwantung Army, the Great Depression's impact), and reach a sophisticated, balanced conclusion.

Level 4 (11-15 marks): Answers will write a balanced response that addresses both economic and non-economic factors. There will be good historical knowledge, though the integration or analytical depth may be slightly weaker than Level 5.

Level 3 (6-10 marks): Answers will tend to be descriptive, describing Japan's actions in the 1930s (such as the invasion of Manchuria and China) with some reference to motives, but without a clear, balanced evaluation of 'to what extent' economic factors were primary.

Level 2 (3-5 marks): Answers will show limited or superficial knowledge, perhaps describing the invasion of Manchuria without addressing the structural causes or the analytical demands of the question.

Level 1 (1-2 marks): Fragmented, irrelevant, or highly inaccurate assertions.