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Infant mortality rate is a key demographic indicator. It is calculated as the number of deaths of children under one year of age per 1,000 live births in a population in a given year.

1 mark for identifying the age group (deaths of children/infants under 1 year of age).
1 mark for the correct proportion and timeframe (per 1,000 live births / per year).

Pull factors are the positive attributes of a destination that attract people to move there. In LICs, urban areas pull rural migrants due to the promise of jobs, better educational facilities, reliable healthcare, and modern infrastructure like electricity and clean water.

Award 1 mark for each valid pull factor listed, up to a maximum of 2 marks.
Acceptable answers include:
- Job opportunities / higher wages / chance to work in the formal sector
- Better healthcare / access to clinics/hospitals
- Better education / schools / universities
- Access to electricity / piped water / sanitation
- Perception of better quality of life / 'bright lights' syndrome
Note: Reject push factors (e.g., crop failure, poverty).

The sphere of influence is the catchment or market area of a settlement. Larger settlements (higher-order) have a wider sphere of influence because they offer specialised services, whereas smaller settlements (lower-order) have a small sphere of influence.

1 mark for referring to the geographical area surrounding/served by a settlement.
1 mark for explaining that it is the area from which people travel to use services, buy goods, or find employment.

The transition zone (or twilight zone) is situated immediately outside the Central Business District (CBD). It is characterised by a mixture of land uses (residential, industrial, commercial), high densities of older housing, and areas experiencing urban decay alongside gentrification or urban regeneration.

Award 1 mark for each valid characteristic identified, up to a maximum of 2 marks.
Acceptable answers include:
- Mixed land use (residential, light industry, commercial)
- High density of older housing (e.g., terraced housing / tenements)
- Presence of derelict, abandoned, or run-down buildings (urban decay)
- High rate of change / redevelopment / gentrification
- High proportion of rented accommodation / transient population
- Close proximity to the Central Business District (CBD)

In Country X (LIC), birth rates are high because: 1) There is a lack of widespread access to and education about contraception and family planning. 2) High infant mortality rates prompt parents to have more children to ensure some survive to adulthood. 3) Children are viewed as economic assets who can work on farms and bring in income. 4) Due to a lack of state pensions, parents rely on their children to care for them in old age. 5) Traditional customs and religious beliefs often encourage large families. In contrast, in Country Y (HIC), birth rates are low because children are economically expensive to raise, women often prioritize careers and delay childbirth, and family planning is widely available.

Award 1 mark for each valid explanation point, up to a maximum of 5 marks. Points can compare both countries or focus on explaining the conditions in one country that lead to the difference. - Lack of family planning/contraception in Country X (1 mark) - Need for children as agricultural labor in Country X (1 mark) - High infant mortality leads to replacement births in Country X (1 mark) - Lack of pensions means children are needed for old-age support in Country X (1 mark) - Women in Country Y delaying family for careers (1 mark) - High cost of raising children in Country Y (1 mark) Note: Maximum 3 marks if only one country is discussed.

Locating a department store at the rural-urban fringe (Location B) offers several advantages over a CBD location (Location A): 1) Land is significantly cheaper at the city edge, reducing overall development and rental costs. 2) There is much more physical space available, allowing for a larger store layout and potential future expansion. 3) Large, free car parks can be provided to attract car-owning shoppers who prefer convenience. 4) It avoids the heavy traffic congestion of the CBD, making access easier for customers and delivery vehicles. 5) Proximity to ring roads and motorways provides excellent regional road accessibility.

Award 1 mark for each distinct comparative advantage of the rural-urban fringe location up to a maximum of 5 marks. - Cheaper land prices / lower rent (1 mark) - More space available for large store layout / expansion (1 mark) - Space to provide free/large customer parking (1 mark) - Better road accessibility / proximity to motorways (1 mark) - Avoidance of CBD traffic congestion / easier delivery access (1 mark) - Quieter / less polluted environment (1 mark) Note: Answers must imply or state a comparison with the CBD to gain full marks.

Example Case Study: Mexico. One major positive impact of international migration from Mexico to the USA is the inflow of remittances. Migrants send billions of dollars back to their families in Mexico, which allows them to improve their standard of living, buy better quality food, and pay for secondary education or private healthcare. Another positive impact is that it reduces pressure on local resources, such as water and land, and reduces the rate of unemployment in rural areas like Michoacan. However, there are also negative impacts. There is a significant brain drain as highly educated and skilled Mexicans, such as engineers and doctors, migrate for better-paying jobs, leaving a shortage of qualified professionals in public services. Furthermore, it leads to an aging population and gender imbalance in many rural villages because it is mostly young, working-age males who migrate, leaving behind elderly people, women, and children. This can lead to a decline in local agricultural productivity as there are fewer strong laborers to work the fields, and can lead to social isolation and stress for families left behind.

Level 1 (1 to 3 marks): Simple statements explaining the impacts of migration on the source country, which are generic and lack detail. (e.g., People send money back home; There are fewer people to work; There is less pressure on jobs; Families are split up.) Level 2 (4 to 6 marks): Developed statements explaining how or why these impacts occur. (e.g., Migrants send home remittances which helps their families pay for school fees or buy better food; Skilled workers like doctors leave which causes a shortage of medical staff in clinics; Mostly young males migrate which leaves an aging population and reduces the agricultural workforce.) Level 3 (7 marks): Level 3 is achieved by meeting the requirements of Level 2 (at least two developed statements) PLUS including specific, accurate details, data, or named locations relevant to the chosen case study country. (e.g., naming specific Mexican states like Michoacan or Zacatecas, referencing specific remittance figures, or explaining specific local demographic changes.)

The process where pebbles are bounced along the river bed is saltation. The process where dissolved minerals are carried in water is solution.

Award 1 mark for saltation. Award 1 mark for solution.

The compression of air in cliff cracks is hydraulic action. The scraping and wearing away of cliffs by wave-transported pebbles is abrasion or corrasion.

Award 1 mark for hydraulic action. Award 1 mark for abrasion or corrasion.

The epicentre is the point on the surface directly above the underground focus where the earthquake begins. A seismometer (or seismograph) is the instrument used to detect and record the vibrations.

Award 1 mark for epicentre (accept epicenter). Award 1 mark for seismometer (accept seismograph).

The highest layer of the rainforest is the emergent layer. Plants that grow harmlessly on other plants to access sunlight are called epiphytes.

Award 1 mark for emergent layer (accept emergents). Award 1 mark for epiphytes.

An oxbow lake is formed through a sequence of erosion and deposition on a river meander. First, lateral erosion occurs on the outer bend of a meander where water flows fastest and has more energy. This erosion, driven by hydraulic action and abrasion, cuts into the outer bank. Meanwhile, slower-flowing water on the inner bend loses energy and deposits its load. Over time, continuous outer-bank erosion and inner-bank deposition narrow the neck of the meander. During a flood or period of high discharge, the river takes the straightest, shortest course and cuts through the narrow neck. Deposition then occurs at the ends of the abandoned loop, sealing it off from the new straight river channel, leaving a crescent-shaped oxbow lake.

Award up to 5 marks for clear explanation of the process: 1 mark for identifying lateral erosion (hydraulic action/abrasion) on the outer bend of the meander; 1 mark for identifying deposition on the inner bend of the meander; 1 mark for explaining that the meander neck narrows over time; 1 mark for explaining that the river cuts through the neck during high flow/flooding; 1 mark for explaining that deposition seals off the old meander loop, forming the oxbow lake.

The formation of a wave-cut platform begins when waves attack the base of a cliff, concentrated between the high and low tide marks. Marine erosion processes, such as hydraulic action (air trapped in cracks is compressed by waves, widening the cracks) and abrasion (waves flinging pebbles against the cliff), erode the base to form a wave-cut notch. Over time, continued erosion deepens the notch, making the cliff face above it unstable and unsupported. Eventually, the overhanging rock collapses under its own gravity. As this sequence of notch formation and cliff collapse repeats over time, the cliff retreats inland. The flat or gently sloping rocky surface left at the base of the retreating cliff is the wave-cut platform, visible at low tide.

Award up to 5 marks for clear process explanation: 1 mark for explaining that waves erode the cliff base between high and low tide marks; 1 mark for describing a specific marine erosion process (e.g., hydraulic action compressing air in cracks, or abrasion throwing sediment against rock) to form a wave-cut notch; 1 mark for explaining that the notch deepens, leaving the overhanging cliff unsupported; 1 mark for the eventual collapse of the overhanging cliff due to gravity; 1 mark for explaining that cliff retreat leaves a flat/gently sloping rocky platform (wave-cut platform) at the base.

Case study: Ganges-Brahmaputra River Basin, Bangladesh. The severe flooding in Bangladesh is caused by a combination of physical and human factors. Physical causes: 1. Heavy Monsoon Rains: The region receives over 2000mm of rain annually, mostly during the monsoon season between June and September. This intense rainfall quickly saturates the soil, reducing infiltration and generating huge volumes of surface runoff into the Brahmaputra and Ganges. 2. Himalayan Snowmelt: In spring and summer, rising temperatures melt snow and glaciers in the Himalayas. This meltwater flows into major tributaries, significantly increasing river discharge just before the monsoon rains arrive. 3. Low-lying Topography: Approximately 70% of Bangladesh is less than 12 metres above sea level, meaning the floodplains are extremely flat and water cannot drain away quickly. Human causes: 1. Deforestation: Massive logging in the Himalayan foothills of Nepal and India for timber and agriculture has reduced forest cover. This decreases interception and evapotranspiration, meaning rainfall enters rivers much faster and causes rapid peak discharge. 2. Urbanisation: Rapid growth of urban areas like Dhaka has replaced natural vegetation with impermeable concrete and tarmac, increasing surface runoff and overwhelming urban drainage systems.

Level 1 (1 to 3 marks): Simple statements describing general causes of flooding. (e.g., It rains heavily in the wet season. Trees are cut down, so there is more water. The land is flat, so water cannot drain.) Level 2 (4 to 6 marks): Developed statements explaining how physical and/or human factors lead to flooding. (e.g., Heavy monsoon rainfall saturates the ground, preventing infiltration and forcing water to run over the surface directly into the river channel. Deforestation in the Himalayan foothills reduces interception and root absorption, leading to a shorter lag time and higher peak river discharge.) Note: Maximum 5 marks if no appropriate named river basin is used. Level 3 (7 marks): At least two fully developed Level 2 explanations, plus specific details or data for a named river basin. (e.g., References specifically to the Ganges, Brahmaputra, or Meghna rivers, specific locations like Dhaka or Nepal, or specific statistics like 70% of Bangladesh being low-lying).

Gross National Income (GNI) measures the total wealth generated by a country's residents and businesses, including net income received from abroad. Crucially, the term 'per capita' means that this total GNI is divided by the total population of that country to represent an average income per person.

Award 1 mark for defining GNI (the total value of goods, services, and net income generated by a country's residents and businesses/overseas earnings).
Award 1 mark for explaining 'per capita' (divided by the total population / average per person).

Physical factors are natural elements of the landscape that influence where factories are built. Manufacturing industries require flat land for building large production plants, and proximity to bulky raw materials to minimise the transport costs of bringing inputs to the factory. Other factors include access to a reliable water supply for cooling or processing.

Award 1 mark for each valid physical factor listed, up to a maximum of 2 marks.

Acceptable answers include:
- Flat/level land (for easy construction of large production facilities)
- Proximity to raw materials / natural resources (reduces weight/transport cost of inputs)
- Reliable water supply (needed for cooling, processing, or as an ingredient)
- Natural harbours / deep-water coastal access (for heavy shipping)
- Proximity to power source (e.g. fast-flowing rivers historically, geothermal hot spots)

Do NOT accept human factors such as transport networks (roads, railways), labor supply, markets, or government policies.

Non-renewable energy resources, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, are finite. These fossil fuels take millions of years to form naturally from organic remains, meaning they are being depleted at a rate far faster than they can replenish, leading to their eventual exhaustion.

Award 1 mark for stating that it is finite / will run out / cannot be replaced once used.
Award 1 mark for explaining that it cannot be replenished at the rate of consumption / takes millions of years to form.

Ecotourism is responsible travel to natural areas. It has two main pillars: protecting the natural environment from negative tourist impacts (conservation) and actively involving and benefiting the local people (providing them with jobs, income, and preserving their culture).

Award 1 mark for explaining the environmental/conservation aspect (e.g., low impact, protecting wildlife, conserving ecosystems).
Award 1 mark for explaining the social/economic benefit to local people (e.g., supporting local communities, employing local guides, providing income directly to local inhabitants).

To answer this question effectively, compare each indicator from the table for both countries. State clearly which country is more developed and back it up with the exact statistics. For example, compare the GNI per capita ($14,200 for Y vs $850 for X), life expectancy (75 years for Y vs 54 years for X), literacy rates (91% for Y vs 48% for X), and agricultural employment (12% for Y vs 68% for X). Finally, synthesize these points to conclude that Country Y is a more developed country (MEDC/NIC) while Country X is a less developed country (LEDC) with a primary-sector dependent economy.

Award up to 4 marks for comparative points using paired data from the table (must include units/figures for both countries, or a direct comparative statement with figures to earn the mark):
- GNI per capita comparison: Country Y is $14,200 whereas Country X is $850 (1 mark)
- Life expectancy comparison: Country Y is 75 years whereas Country X is 54 years (1 mark)
- Literacy rate comparison: Country Y is 91% whereas Country X is 48% (1 mark)
- Agricultural employment comparison: Country X is 68% whereas Country Y is 12% (1 mark)
Award 1 mark for overall synthesis/evaluation:
- Correctly identifying that Country Y is much more developed than Country X / Country Y is an MEDC and Country X is an LEDC (1 mark)

Begin by comparing the overall sustainability of the two countries' energy profiles. Contrast Country P's heavy reliance on highly polluting fossil fuels (80% total from coal and oil) with Country Q's complete absence of coal and oil (0%). Compare the renewable energy proportions, noting that Country Q uses 60% renewable energy (35% hydro, 25% wind & solar) while Country P uses only 10% (8% hydro, 2% wind & solar). Explain the environmental implications of these differences, such as carbon dioxide emissions, global warming, air pollution, and resource depletion.

Award 1 mark for overall comparative evaluation:
- Concluding that Country Q's energy mix is much more environmentally sustainable than Country P's.
Award up to 2 marks for comparative data use (must cite figures for both countries to compare):
- Country P uses 80% highly polluting fossil fuels (55% coal, 25% oil) whereas Country Q uses 0% coal and oil (1 mark).
- Country Q uses 60% renewable energy (35% hydro, 25% wind/solar) whereas Country P only uses 10% (8% hydro, 2% wind/solar) (1 mark).
Award up to 2 marks for environmental explanations/justifications:
- Explaining that burning coal/oil in Country P releases large quantities of greenhouse gases (CO2) contributing to climate change / sulfur dioxide causing acid rain (1 mark).
- Explaining that renewables (wind/solar) in Country Q are infinite/non-depleting and do not emit greenhouse gases during generation (1 mark).

Example Case Study: Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya

Tourism in the Maasai Mara has led to significant environmental degradation. Firstly, off-road driving by safari minibuses trying to get tourists close to wildlife has destroyed the natural vegetation cover. This has led to severe soil compaction and subsequent soil erosion, as heavy seasonal rains wash away the topsoil, leaving deep gullies and preventing grass from regrowing.

Secondly, the construction of numerous tourist lodges and camps along the Mara River has led to water depletion and pollution. Lodges consume large volumes of freshwater for swimming pools and guest use, reducing the river's flow. Untreated or partially treated sewage and waste from these lodges have leaked into the river system, degrading water quality and threatening aquatic species.

Thirdly, wildlife behavior has been severely disrupted. High concentrations of safari vehicles around big cats, such as cheetahs and lions, cause physiological stress, which has led to lower breeding success rates. Furthermore, the noise and litter left behind by tourists disturb nesting birds and pollute natural habitats, occasionally leading to animals ingesting plastic waste.

Level 1 (1-3 marks): Simple statements
- Simple, generalized points showing basic knowledge of environmental impacts (e.g., litter is left behind, animals are disturbed, air is polluted by cars).
- Note: Max 3 marks if no named/inappropriate area.

Level 2 (4-6 marks): Developed statements
- Explains how these impacts occur (e.g., safari vehicles drive off-road to get close to wildlife, which crushes the grass and leads to soil erosion; sewage from hotels is dumped into local rivers, polluting the water).
- Note: Max 5 marks if named area is not appropriate, or if there are no place-specific details.

Level 3 (7 marks): Fully developed with place-specific detail
- Comprehensive explanations of at least two distinct environmental impacts.
- Must include specific, accurate details unique to the chosen study area (e.g., named features like the Mara River, specific wildlife species like cheetahs, or local geographical features).