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In Piaget's theory, egocentrism is the child's inability to see a situation from another person's point of view. In the three mountains task, children who choose the picture that shows their own viewpoint are demonstrating egocentrism.

1 mark for identifying the correct psychological concept of egocentrism.

Counting backwards in threes acts as an interference task. It prevents verbal rehearsal of the trigram during the retention interval, allowing researchers to measure the pure duration of short-term memory without rehearsal.

1 mark for identifying that the counting task was designed to prevent rehearsal.

According to Bartlett's theory of reconstructive memory, rationalisation occurs when individuals alter information that does not make sense to them (e.g., unfamiliar cultural elements from 'The War of the Ghosts') so that it fits their pre-existing schemas and cultural expectations.

1 mark for identifying the correct definition of rationalisation.

The 5-HTT gene is responsible for producing serotonin transporters. Research indicates that individuals with one or two short alleles of this gene are more vulnerable to developing clinical depression following stressful life events.

1 mark for identifying the 5-HTT gene as the gene linked to clinical depression.

Functional analysis is the first stage of CBT for addiction. It involves the therapist and client working together to identify the triggers, thoughts, and feelings that lead to the addictive behaviour, helping the client understand why they engage in it.

1 mark for identifying that functional analysis involves identifying triggers and thoughts linked to the behaviour.

Once neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft, they diffuse across the gap and bind to specific complementary receptor sites on the postsynaptic membrane, transmitting the chemical signal to the next neuron.

1 mark for identifying that neurotransmitters bind to specific receptors on the postsynaptic membrane.

Visual information from the left visual field is processed by the right hemisphere. Since split-brain patients have had their corpus callosum severed, this information cannot be shared with the language centres located in the left hemisphere, preventing them from naming the object.

1 mark for explaining that the right hemisphere processes the left visual field and lacks language centres, and the severed connection prevents transfer of information.

Piliavin et al. found that the ill victim (carrying a cane) received spontaneous help on 95% of the trials, whereas the drunk victim (carrying a bottle in a brown paper bag) received help on 50% of the trials, and help was given much faster to the ill victim.

1 mark for identifying that the ill victim received help more quickly and more often than the drunk victim.

Murdock's (1962) serial position curve study demonstrated that words at the beginning of a list are recalled well (the primacy effect) because they have received more attention and rehearsal, allowing them to be successfully transferred to long-term memory (LTM). Words at the end of the list are recalled well (the recency effect) because they are still held in short-term memory (STM).

1 mark for selecting option A. B is incorrect because it describes short-term memory retention which applies to the recency effect. C and D are incorrect as they describe the recency effect rather than the primacy effect.

Beck proposed a cognitive triad of depression, which consists of three components of negative thinking: a negative view of oneself (the self), a negative view of the world (one's experiences), and a negative view of the future.

1 mark for selecting option B. A, C, and D are incorrect because they include components (such as past, present, friends, family, genetics, environment, or lifestyle) that do not form part of Beck's specific cognitive triad model.

Person praise involves praising a person's stable, personal qualities (such as their intelligence or talent) rather than their effort or the strategy they used. An example is a teacher telling a student: 'You are so clever!' after they complete a test.

Award 1 mark for the definition of person praise: Praising a person's intelligence, talent, or personal qualities (rather than their effort/process) (1). Award 1 mark for a relevant example: A teacher saying: 'You are so smart!' or 'You're a natural at this!' (1).

Schemas can cause errors in reconstructive memory through: 1. Omission: we leave out details that do not align with our expectations or cultural schemas. 2. Rationalisation/Transformation: we distort or alter unfamiliar details to make them fit our existing schemas.

Award 1 mark for each correct way described (up to 2 marks): Omission / leaving out details that do not fit the schema (1). Rationalisation / changing details to make sense according to existing schemas (1). Familiarisation / substituting unfamiliar details with familiar ones (1). Distortions / adding details that fit our expectations but were not actually present (1).

Beck's cognitive triad consists of three types of negative automatic thoughts that contribute to depression. These are: negative views about the self, negative views about the world, and negative views about the future. Identifying any two of these components is sufficient.

Award 1 mark for each identified component of the cognitive triad (up to 2 marks): Negative views about the self (1). Negative views about the world (1). Negative views about the future (1). Do not accept general terms like 'sadness' or 'anxiety'.

The corpus callosum is a thick band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres. Its primary function is to facilitate interhemispheric communication, allowing sensory and motor information to be transferred between the two sides of the brain.

Award 1 mark for identifying the structure/connection: It is a bundle of nerve fibers/axons that connects the left and right hemispheres (1). Award 1 mark for identifying the function: It allows the two hemispheres to communicate / share information / work together (1).

Proximity refers to how close the authority figure or the victim is to the participant. If the authority figure is physically closer (high proximity) to the participant, obedience levels are higher because the pressure to obey is more immediate. If the victim is closer to the participant, obedience levels decrease as the participant directly witnesses the consequences of their actions.

Award 1 mark for identifying the direction of the effect of proximity: Being physically closer to the authority figure increases obedience / being further away decreases obedience (1) OR being closer to the victim decreases obedience (1). Award 1 mark for explaining why: Close proximity to authority makes the threat of disapproval/authority feel more immediate (1) OR close proximity to the victim makes the consequences of obedience more personal/difficult to ignore (1).

Egocentrism is a characteristic of cognitive development, typical of the pre-operational stage, where a child is unable to understand or see things from another person's perspective. They assume that everyone else sees, hears, and feels exactly what they do.

Award 1 mark for the core definition: The inability to see things/situations from another person's point of view (1). Award 1 mark for further explanation/detail: Assuming everyone else shares the same thoughts/feelings/perceptions as themselves (1) OR linking it to the pre-operational stage (1) OR mentioning the Three Mountains task (1).

According to the Multi-store Model of Memory (Atkinson and Shiffrin), Short-Term Memory has a limited duration and capacity. The duration is approximately 18 to 30 seconds (unless rehearsal occurs), and the capacity is typically 7 plus or minus 2 items (or 5 to 9 items).

Award 1 mark for the correct duration: 18 to 30 seconds / up to 30 seconds (1). Award 1 mark for the correct capacity: 7 +/- 2 items / 5 to 9 items / chunks of information (1).

Peer influence can lead to addiction through social learning. An individual observes friends or peers engaging in addictive behaviors (e.g. drinking alcohol or smoking) and experiencing positive consequences (social approval, fun). The individual then imitates this behavior to fit in, gain peer status, or avoid rejection, leading to the development of an addiction.

Award 1 mark for identifying the psychological process of peer influence: Through social learning/modelling/imitation of peers (1) OR through social pressure/the desire to fit in and gain approval (1). Award 1 mark for linking this process to the development of an addiction: An individual copies peers' addictive behaviors (such as smoking/vaping/drinking) to avoid social exclusion, which initiates the habit/addiction (1).

Displacement is an explanation of forgetting in Short-Term Memory. It states that STM has a limited capacity of 7 plus or minus 2 chunks of information. When this capacity is reached, any new information entering STM will push out (displace) the existing information, causing it to be forgotten.

Award 1 mark for stating that STM has a limited capacity (e.g. 5 to 9 items / 7 +/- 2). Award 1 mark for explaining that new information pushes out or replaces older information.

Dweck's mindset theory suggests that people either have a fixed or growth mindset. In a school setting, teachers can praise students' effort (e.g. 'you worked really hard on this math problem') rather than their intelligence (e.g. 'you are so smart'). This fosters a growth mindset, helping students view setbacks as learning opportunities, which ultimately improves academic performance.

Award 1 mark for identifying a relevant application (e.g. praising effort/process rather than outcome/intelligence, or teaching students that the brain can grow). Award 1 mark for explaining how this application improves performance (e.g. it fosters a growth mindset which increases resilience and persistence through difficult tasks).

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) involves identifying negative thought patterns, such as cognitive distortions or negative self-schemas, and actively challenging them. The therapist and client work together to test these beliefs (e.g. through reality testing or behavioral experiments) to replace them with rational, adaptive thoughts and behaviors.

Award 1 mark for identifying the cognitive component (e.g. identifying and challenging irrational/negative thoughts). Award 1 mark for identifying the behavioral or therapeutic action (e.g. setting homework tasks, behavioral activation, or replacing negative thoughts with positive/rational beliefs).

The temporal lobe is located on the sides of the brain. Two of its key functions are processing auditory information (hearing) and language comprehension (specifically through Wernicke's area). It is also involved in memory processing.

Award 1 mark for each correct function of the temporal lobe identified, up to a maximum of 2 marks. Acceptable functions: Auditory processing (hearing), Language comprehension (Wernicke's area), Memory formation / processing.

Deindividuation refers to the loss of individual self-awareness and personal responsibility that can occur when a person is part of a crowd or group. Because they feel anonymous, they are more likely to behave in ways they would not normally do individually, such as engaging in anti-social behavior.

Award 1 mark for identifying the core feature of the term (e.g. loss of individual identity, self-awareness, or feelings of anonymity). Award 1 mark for the consequence or context (e.g. feeling less personally responsible for actions, occurring in crowds or when wearing uniforms/masks).

According to Bartlett's reconstructive memory theory, schemas are mental packages of information about the world. When eyewitnesses try to recall a crime, they may not remember all the details. Instead, their schemas fill in the gaps with expectations of what typically happens in that scenario, leading to distortions and reducing the reliability of their testimony.

Award 1 mark for explaining that schemas contain expectations or pre-existing knowledge about events. Award 1 mark for linking this to memory distortion (e.g. eyewitnesses fill in gaps in their memory with these expectations, leading to inaccurate recall).

In Piaget's theory of cognitive development, decentration is the ability of a child to move away from focusing on just one single feature of a problem (centration) and instead consider multiple aspects simultaneously. This is crucial for understanding concepts like conservation.

Award 1 mark for defining decentration as the ability to focus on multiple aspects of a situation or object at once. Award 1 mark for a contrasting point or developmental milestone (e.g. moving away from centration, or allowing a child to conserve volume/mass).

Chloe is in the pre-operational stage of cognitive development (typically aged 2 to 7 years). Children in this stage have not yet developed the concept of conservation, which is the understanding that the quantity of something remains the same even if its physical appearance changes. Because of this, Chloe focuses on only one feature of the display—the physical length of the row of counters—rather than counting them. This cognitive limitation is known as centration. When her father spreads out the counters, she is misled by the longer appearance and incorrectly concludes there are more counters.

Award 1 mark for identifying Chloe's stage of development: Chloe is in the pre-operational stage (1). Award 1 mark for defining conservation or centration: She lacks conservation / she is showing centration (1). Award 2 marks for applying this to the scenario: She cannot understand that the number of counters remains the same when spread out (1); she only focuses on the visual length of the row rather than the quantity (1).

Harpreet uses the process of chunking to group the ten individual digits into three larger, meaningful units (839, 2017, and 465). According to the Multi-store Model of memory, short-term memory (STM) has a limited capacity of approximately 7 plus or minus 2 items (or between 5 and 9 items). By chunking the numbers, Harpreet reduces the ten separate items into just three chunks, which easily fits within the capacity limits of his short-term memory. He would also need to use maintenance rehearsal (verbally repeating the chunks) to keep the information in his STM or transfer it to long-term memory.

Award 1 mark for identifying the process used: Harpreet uses chunking to group the digits (1). Award 1 mark for linking to STM capacity: The capacity of short-term memory is limited to 7 +/- 2 items (or 5-9 items) (1). Award 2 marks for explaining how this helps him recall the passcode: Ten individual digits would exceed STM capacity, but three chunks easily fit within this limit (1); he may also use maintenance rehearsal to keep the chunks in STM or transfer them to LTM (1).

Beck's cognitive triad suggests that depression is maintained by negative automatic thoughts about the self, the world, and the future. Marcus demonstrates a negative view of himself when he thinks 'I am useless at everything'. He demonstrates a negative view of the future when he thinks 'My future is completely hopeless'. Furthermore, Marcus exhibits a cognitive bias called overgeneralisation, where he takes one negative event (failing a single history quiz) and applies it to his entire self-worth and overall future, ignoring his success in other subjects.

Award 1 mark for identifying the components of Beck's cognitive triad (self, world, future) (1). Award 1 mark for applying the negative view of self: Marcus thinks 'I am useless at everything' (1). Award 1 mark for applying the negative view of the future: He thinks 'My future is completely hopeless' (1). Award 1 mark for identifying/explaining his cognitive bias: He overgeneralises a single quiz failure to all areas of his life (1).

Brain lateralisation refers to the idea that some cognitive functions are controlled more by one hemisphere than the other; in most people, language processing is lateralised to the left hemisphere. Localisation of function refers to the theory that specific areas of the brain have specific roles. Wernicke's area, located in the left temporal lobe, is responsible for language comprehension and generating meaningful speech. Because Arthur's stroke damaged Wernicke's area, his ability to understand speech is impaired. Although Broca's area (responsible for speech production) is undamaged and allows him to speak fluently, his inability to comprehend or structure language due to Wernicke's damage results in fluent but meaningless sentences (Wernicke's aphasia).

Award 1 mark for defining/linking lateralisation: Language functions are lateralised to the left hemisphere, where Arthur's damage occurred (1). Award 1 mark for defining/linking localisation: Wernicke's area is localised in the temporal lobe and controls language comprehension (1). Award 1 mark for explaining Arthur's comprehension issues: Damage to Wernicke's area means he cannot understand spoken words (1). Award 1 mark for explaining Arthur's nonsensical speech: Because Wernicke's is damaged but Broca's is intact, he speaks fluently but the words lack meaning (1).

The letter sent by the council communicates a social norm by informing residents about the high level of recycling in their immediate community. This triggers conformity, where individuals change their behaviour to match the group. Residents may conform due to informational social influence, as they look to the 90% majority to understand the correct, socially responsible way to behave. They may also conform due to normative social influence, as they want to avoid standing out or being judged negatively by their neighbours. This results in compliance or internalisation, leading to the 40% increase in recycling.

Award 1 mark for identifying conformity or social norms: The letter establishes a social norm of recycling in the neighbourhood (1). Award 1 mark for explaining informational social influence: Residents look to the 90% majority for information on how they should act (1). Award 1 mark for explaining normative social influence: Residents conform to fit in with their neighbours and avoid social disapproval (1). Award 1 mark for linking to the outcome: This social pressure leads to actual behavioural change (compliance/internalisation), resulting in a 40% increase (1).

According to Bartlett's theory of reconstructive memory, memory is not an exact recording of an event, but an active reconstruction process. Fiona's initial memory of the accident likely had missing details or gaps, such as the exact color and model of the car. When she saw the news report, she was exposed to post-event misinformation about a 'red sports car'. Fiona used this new, schema-consistent information to fill in the gaps of her original memory (effort after meaning/confabulation). When she recalled the event for the police, she reconstructed a single narrative that combined her original perception with the misinformation from the news, leading to an inaccurate recall.

Award 1 mark for stating that memory is reconstructive/active rather than passive (1). Award 1 mark for explaining memory gaps: Fiona had gaps in her original memory of the car's specific appearance (1). Award 1 mark for explaining post-event information: The news report provided misleading post-event information about the car being a red sports car (1). Award 1 mark for explaining reconstruction: Fiona combined the post-event misinformation with her original memory to fill the gaps, leading to the false recall of a red sports car (1).

According to Dweck's mindset theory, feedback that focuses on effort and strategy rather than innate ability promotes a growth mindset. Lucas's teacher avoids criticizing his intelligence and instead points out a lack of effort/practice ('haven't practiced this technique enough'). By telling him that he can improve 'with more effort', the teacher frames ability as something malleable that can be developed, rather than fixed. This encourages Lucas to see failure not as a reflection of permanent low ability, but as an opportunity to learn and grow, which motivates him to work harder and persist in the future.

Award 1 mark for identifying the type of praise/feedback: The teacher praises effort and strategy rather than innate intelligence/ability (1). Award 1 mark for defining growth mindset: A growth mindset is the belief that intelligence and abilities can be developed through practice and hard work (1). Award 1 mark for explaining the role of failure: The teacher frames the low mark as a temporary setback due to insufficient practice rather than permanent failure (1). Award 1 mark for explaining Lucas's motivation: This encourages Lucas to persist and put in more effort, believing he can improve (1).

Systematic desensitisation uses classical conditioning to treat phobias based on reciprocal inhibition—the idea that a person cannot feel fear and relaxation at the same time. First, Sarah is taught deep muscle relaxation techniques so she can control her physical anxiety. Next, she and her therapist construct an anxiety hierarchy, which ranks dog-related situations from least frightening (imagining a dog) to most frightening (stroking a dog). Sarah is gradually exposed to these situations while practicing relaxation. She only moves up the hierarchy when she can remain completely calm at the current stage, eventually extinguishing her fear of dogs by pairing them with relaxation.

Award 1 mark for the underlying principle: It works through classical conditioning and reciprocal inhibition (relaxation and fear cannot coexist) (1). Award 1 mark for relaxation training: Sarah is taught deep muscle relaxation techniques to manage her anxiety (1). Award 1 mark for the anxiety hierarchy: Sarah and her therapist rank dog-related situations from least to most feared (1). Award 1 mark for gradual exposure: Sarah is exposed to each level of the hierarchy while relaxed, only progressing when she feels completely calm, until her fear is extinguished (1).

Sarah obeys her manager because she perceives them as a legitimate authority figure in the social hierarchy of the shop. This triggers an agentic shift where Sarah moves from an autonomous state to an agentic state, acting on behalf of her manager. Sarah experiences moral strain because she feels uncomfortable lying to customers, knowing it is wrong. She manages this moral strain by displacing the responsibility onto her manager, believing her manager will take the blame if they are caught.

Award 1 mark for each of the following points, up to a maximum of 4 marks: - Sarah perceives her manager as a legitimate authority figure (1 mark). - Sarah undergoes an agentic shift / enters an agentic state to carry out the order (1 mark). - Sarah experiences moral strain because she feels uncomfortable lying (1 mark). - Sarah displaces responsibility onto her manager, believing her manager will take the blame (1 mark).

Leo demonstrates a fixed mindset because he believes his abilities are innate and cannot be changed, as shown when he says he is not a musical person. Because of this mindset, Leo views effort as pointless and gives up quickly when faced with a difficult challenge. Mia demonstrates a growth mindset because she believes that intelligence and skills can be developed over time. Mia welcomes the challenge and views effort and daily practice as the primary method to improve her performance and master the violin.

Award 1 mark for each of the following points, up to a maximum of 4 marks: - Identifying that Leo has a fixed mindset because he believes ability is innate / he is not a musical person (1 mark). - Explaining that Leo views effort as pointless and gives up after a setback (1 mark). - Identifying that Mia has a growth mindset because she believes she can develop her skills with practice (1 mark). - Explaining that Mia views effort/practice as a way to improve and master the challenge (1 mark).

An excellent response should cover the following points: AO1 (Knowledge and understanding): Define social control as the regulation of individual or group behavior to enforce conformity and obedience to society's rules. Reference Skinner's operant conditioning and the use of token economy systems (TES) to shape behavior in institutional settings like prisons or schools. Reference Milgram's agency theory and research into obedience, which demonstrates how easily authority figures can command individuals to act against their moral conscience. Reference social influence processes in marketing and advertising to manipulate consumer behavior. AO3 (Analysis and evaluation/assessment): Assess the ethical implications of using token economies; while they improve safety and manageability in prisons, they can be seen as coercive and a violation of personal autonomy. Discuss how obedience research has a positive application by helping people recognize and resist blind obedience (e.g., preventing atrocities), but can also be exploited by governments or organizations to ensure compliance. Evaluate the economic and societal benefits of behavior modification, arguing that some level of social control is necessary for public safety and order. Conclude with a balanced judgment: while psychological knowledge can be misused for unethical manipulation, it remains a vital tool for positive behavior change when guided by strict ethical codes.

Assessment objective breakdown: AO1: 4 marks (Knowledge and understanding of psychological concepts/theories relevant to social control). AO3: 5 marks (Analysis, evaluation, and judgment of the benefits versus ethical limitations). Level 1 (1-3 marks): Demonstrates isolated elements of knowledge. Evaluation is sparse and lacks structure. Level 2 (4-6 marks): Demonstrates mostly accurate knowledge. Evaluation is present but may lack depth or balanced judgment. Level 3 (7-9 marks): Demonstrates accurate and thorough knowledge. Evaluation is well-developed, structured, and leads to a balanced, logical conclusion.

An excellent response should cover the following points: AO1 (Knowledge and understanding): Define neuropsychology as the study of how brain structure and function relate to specific psychological processes and behaviors. Identify key developments, such as localization of brain function (e.g., Damasio et al.'s study of Phineas Gage, or Broca's area) and modern neuroimaging techniques (such as fMRI, PET, and CT scans). Explain how understanding neurotransmitters has led to biological treatments for mental health conditions. AO3 (Analysis and evaluation/assessment): Assess the benefits: neuroimaging has revolutionized the diagnosis and treatment of brain injuries (such as strokes or tumors), allowing for highly targeted cognitive rehabilitation. The biological understanding of disorders like depression and schizophrenia has reduced social stigma by framing them as physical illnesses. Assess the limitations: neuropsychology is often criticized for being highly reductionist, as it attempts to explain complex human behaviors solely through physical brain structures, ignoring environmental, social, and psychological factors. Biological treatments like drug therapies can cause severe side effects and may only treat symptoms rather than root causes. Conclude with a balanced judgment: although neuropsychology has significant clinical benefits that have improved quality of life for millions, its contribution is most effective when integrated with holistic, psychological approaches.

Assessment objective breakdown: AO1: 4 marks (Knowledge and understanding of neuropsychological concepts, techniques, and studies). AO3: 5 marks (Analysis, evaluation, and judgment of its benefits to society versus its reductionist limitations). Level 1 (1-3 marks): Demonstrates isolated elements of knowledge. Evaluation is sparse and lacks structure. Level 2 (4-6 marks): Demonstrates mostly accurate knowledge. Evaluation is present but may lack depth or balanced judgment. Level 3 (7-9 marks): Demonstrates accurate and thorough knowledge. Evaluation is well-developed, structured, and leads to a balanced, logical conclusion.

To find the mean, sum all the scores and divide by the total number of participants.

Sum of scores: \(12 + 15 + 8 + 14 + 11 + 19 + 13 + 16 = 108\)

Number of participants: \(8\)

Mean: \(108 / 8 = 13.5\)

Award 1 mark for showing correct working (e.g., \(108 / 8\) or showing a sum of 108).
Award 1 mark for the correct answer: 13.5.

To find the median, first arrange the data in order from lowest to highest:
0.7, 0.8, 1.1, 1.2, 1.4, 1.5, 1.8, 1.9, 2.1

The median is the middle value (the 5th value in a set of 9):
Median = 1.4

Award 1 mark for arranging the data in order (e.g., 0.7, 0.8, 1.1, 1.2, 1.4, 1.5, 1.8, 1.9, 2.1) or identifying the middle position.
Award 1 mark for the correct median: 1.4 (seconds).

To calculate the percentage:

\(\frac{36}{120} \times 100\)

\(\frac{36}{120} = 0.3\)

\(0.3 \times 100 = 30\%\)

Award 1 mark for correct working (e.g., \(\frac{36}{120} \times 100\) or \(0.3 \times 100\)).
Award 1 mark for the correct answer: 30% (accept 30).

The ratio of cooperative to aggressive behavior is \(45:15\).
To simplify, divide both sides by the greatest common divisor, which is 15:

\(\frac{45}{15} : \frac{15}{15} = 3:1\)

Award 1 mark for showing the initial ratio or step to simplify (e.g., \(45:15\) or dividing by 5 to get \(9:3\)).
Award 1 mark for the correct simplified ratio: 3:1.

To find the range, subtract the lowest value from the highest value.

Highest value = 9.5
Lowest value = 5.5

Range = \(9.5 - 5.5 = 4.0\)

Award 1 mark for identifying the correct highest and lowest values or showing the calculation (e.g., \(9.5 - 5.5\)).
Award 1 mark for the correct range: 4 (or 4.0).

First write the fraction: \(\frac{16}{80}\).
To simplify the fraction, divide both the numerator and the denominator by their greatest common divisor, which is 16:

\(\frac{16 \div 16}{80 \div 16} = \frac{1}{5}\)

Award 1 mark for showing the fraction before simplification (e.g., \(\frac{16}{80}\) or intermediate simplification like \(\frac{4}{20}\) or \(\frac{2}{10}\)).
Award 1 mark for the correct simplified fraction: \(\frac{1}{5}\) (or 1/5).

First, find the decrease in score:
\(25 - 18 = 7\)

Next, divide the decrease by the original score and multiply by 100 to get the percentage:

\(\frac{7}{25} \times 100 = 0.28 \times 100 = 28\%\)

Award 1 mark for correct working to find the change or percentage (e.g., \(\frac{7}{25} \times 100\) or \(0.28 \times 100\)).
Award 1 mark for the correct percentage decrease: 28% (accept 28).

The mode is the value that occurs most frequently in a data set.
Looking at the frequency table, the highest frequency is 12, which corresponds to 3 hours.
Therefore, the mode is 3.

Award 1 mark for identifying that the highest frequency is 12.
Award 1 mark for identifying the correct mode: 3 (hours).

To draw the bar chart: 1. Title: Add a title such as 'Bar chart showing the mean performance scores for Group A and Group B'. 2. Axes: Label the vertical y-axis as 'Mean performance score (out of 20)' and set a scale (e.g., intervals of 2 or 5 up to 20). Label the horizontal x-axis as 'Group' or 'Condition' and create two distinct points/columns for 'Group A (Music)' and 'Group B (Silence)'. 3. Plotting: Draw a bar for Group A up to 11 on the y-axis, and a bar for Group B up to 16. Ensure there is a visible gap between the two bars as the data is categorical.

Award 1 mark for each of the following up to a maximum of 3 marks: - 1 mark for an appropriate and descriptive title that mentions both variables (the groups/conditions and performance scores). - 1 mark for correct and clear labelling of both axes: the y-axis as 'Mean performance score (out of 20)' (or similar) and the x-axis with both group names clearly identified. - 1 mark for plotting both bars accurately (Group A at 11 and Group B at 16) with an appropriate, evenly spaced scale starting at 0, ensuring a gap remains between the bars.

AO1 (6 marks) - Knowledge and understanding:
- Eysenck proposed that personality is innate and biologically determined, inherited through the nervous system.
- He identified three main dimensions of personality: Extraversion-Introversion (E), Neuroticism-Stability (N), and Psychoticism-Self-control (P).
- High Extraverts (E) have an under-aroused nervous system and seek external stimulation, leading to risk-taking and sensation-seeking behaviours.
- High Neurotics (N) have a highly reactive sympathetic nervous system, making them emotionally unstable, anxious, and prone to over-reacting.
- High Psychoticism (P) is linked to high testosterone levels, resulting in individuals who are aggressive, cold, and lacking in empathy.
- The criminal personality is characterised by high scores across all three dimensions (E, N, and P), making them difficult to socialise and condition.

AO3 (6 marks) - Evaluation and judgment:
- Strength: The theory is supported by research, such as Eysenck and Eysenck (1977), who found that male prisoners scored significantly higher on E, N, and P compared to a control group.
- Weakness: Other researchers, such as Farrington et al. (1982), reviewed studies and found that while offenders scored high on N and P, they did not consistently score high on E, suggesting Eysenck's profile may not be fully accurate.
- Weakness: The theory is biologically reductionist as it simplifies complex criminal behaviour down to physiological arousal and genetics, ignoring environmental and socio-economic factors such as poverty or peer pressure.
- Weakness: The theory relies heavily on personality questionnaires (like the EPQ) to measure traits. These measures are self-report and can suffer from social desirability bias, meaning offenders may not answer honestly.
- Conclusion: Eysenck's theory provides a useful framework by combining biological and psychological perspectives, but it is ultimately too deterministic and simplified to explain the vast diversity of criminal activities.

Marking Criteria:

Level 1 (1-3 marks):
- Demonstrates isolated elements of knowledge of Eysenck's theory. (AO1)
- Evaluation is simplistic or absent; no clear structure. (AO3)

Level 2 (4-6 marks):
- Demonstrates some accurate knowledge and understanding of Eysenck's theory, with some omission or inaccuracy. (AO1)
- Evaluation is present but limited, offering basic strengths or weaknesses without detailed development. (AO3)

Level 3 (7-9 marks):
- Demonstrates mostly accurate knowledge and understanding of Eysenck's theory and dimensions (E, N, P). (AO1)
- Evaluation is developed and balanced, highlighting some specific strengths and weaknesses (e.g., supporting research vs reductionism). (AO3)

Level 4 (10-12 marks):
- Demonstrates detailed, accurate, and thorough knowledge of Eysenck's theory. (AO1)
- Evaluation is sustained, logical, and well-structured, leading to a balanced and coherent overall judgment regarding the theory's usefulness. (AO3)

One mark for identifying that Amir observed his brother receiving a positive reward (praise) for stealing, which acts as vicarious reinforcement. One mark for explaining that observing this reward motivated Amir to copy the behavior in hopes of getting the same reward.

1 mark for identifying the vicarious reinforcement in the scenario (e.g. Amir saw his brother get rewarded/praised for stealing). 1 mark for explaining how this leads to imitation of the behavior (e.g. this motivated Amir to copy the behavior to get the same reward).

One mark for explaining extraversion in relation to criminal behavior (seeking excitement/stimulation or risk-taking). One mark for explaining neuroticism in relation to criminal behavior (emotional instability, impulsivity, or overreacting under stress).

1 mark for linking high extraversion to risk-taking/thrill-seeking behavior (e.g. extraverts seek external stimulation because of an under-aroused nervous system). 1 mark for linking high neuroticism to emotional instability/impulsiveness (e.g. neurotics react strongly to stressful situations and find it hard to control their behavior).

One mark for explaining that tokens act as secondary reinforcers given for positive/desired behavior. One mark for explaining that these tokens are exchanged for primary reinforcers (rewards), which reinforces/increases the positive behavior.

1 mark for identifying that positive/desired behavior is rewarded with tokens (secondary reinforcers). 1 mark for explaining that these tokens are exchanged for primary reinforcers/rewards (e.g. phone calls, visiting time) to reinforce the desired behavior.

One mark for the first difference (e.g. top-down vs bottom-up processing). One mark for the second difference (e.g. role of past experience/inferences vs direct perception from the optic array).

Accept any two valid differences. 1 mark for stating that Gregory's theory is top-down whereas Gibson's is bottom-up. 1 mark for stating that Gregory's theory relies on inferences/past experience while Gibson's theory states perception is direct and doesn't require past learning.

One mark for correctly identifying the monocular depth cue as 'linear perspective'. One mark for explaining that parallel lines converging in the distance signals depth/greater distance to the brain.

1 mark for identifying: linear perspective (reject other depth cues). 1 mark for explaining: parallel lines seem to converge/meet in the distance, which tells the brain that objects near the convergence point are further away.

One mark for explaining that her perceptual set was primed/influenced by the prior context of farm animals. One mark for explaining that this created an expectation, causing her brain to interpret the ambiguous drawing as a horse to match that category.

1 mark for stating that the prior images of farm animals primed her expectations/created a perceptual set. 1 mark for explaining that this expectation biased her interpretation to see the ambiguous drawing as a horse (consistent with her expectations/schema).

To achieve a high mark in this 9-mark 'Assess' question, answers should demonstrate a balance of accurate knowledge (AO1) and a thorough, critical assessment (AO3) of Eysenck's personality theory.

### AO1 Knowledge and Understanding (3 marks):
- **Biological Basis**: Eysenck argued that personality traits are innate and determined by the nervous system we inherit.
- **The PEN Model**: He identified three dimensions:
- **Extraversion (E)**: Determined by under-aroused nervous systems, causing individuals to seek external stimulation.
- **Neuroticism (N)**: Determined by a highly reactive sympathetic nervous system, causing individuals to be unstable and easily stressed.
- **Psychoticism (P)**: Linked to high testosterone levels, causing individuals to be aggressive and cold.
- **Criminal Profile**: A high PEN score characterizes the criminal personality, making them resistant to conditioning and social conditioning.

### AO3 Assessment and Evaluation (6 marks):
- **Empirical Support**: Point to studies supporting Eysenck's theory. For instance, Eysenck's own research compared male prisoners with control groups and found significantly higher scores on E, N, and P.
- **Contradictory Evidence**: Counter this with evidence that the extraversion trait is not consistently high in all offender groups (e.g., Farrington et al., 1982, who found higher P and N but not consistently higher E in official offenders).
- **Methodological Limitations**: Critique the reliance on psychometric tests (EPQ) to measure personality. Self-report measures are prone to social desirability bias and might not reflect true, stable personality traits.
- **Comparison with Alternative Theories**: Assess the theory against other models, such as Social Learning Theory (SLT), which argues crime is learned through observation and imitation of role models in the environment, rather than being biologically predetermined.
- **Conclusion**: Conclude by weighing up the strengths and weaknesses. A balanced conclusion might suggest that while the theory helps identify potential risk factors, it is too deterministic and should be considered alongside social and economic factors to provide a complete picture of criminal behaviour.

### Level Descriptors and Mark Breakdown:

**AO1 (3 marks):** Knowledge and understanding of psychological theories, concepts, and studies.
**AO3 (6 marks):** Assessment, evaluation, and analysis of psychological theories, concepts, and studies.

* **Level 1 (1-3 marks):**
- Demonstrates isolated elements of knowledge and understanding of Eysenck's theory. (AO1)
- Assessment is generic, superficial, or lacks direction. Evaluative points are disconnected. (AO3)

* **Level 2 (4-6 marks):**
- Demonstrates mostly accurate knowledge and understanding of Eysenck's theory and dimensions (PEN). (AO1)
- Assessment is developed, with some appropriate evaluation points (e.g., pointing out support and limitations). However, the argument may be one-sided or lack a balanced conclusion. (AO3)

* **Level 3 (7-9 marks):**
- Demonstrates accurate, detailed, and thorough knowledge of Eysenck's biological explanation and the specific personality types. (AO1)
- Assessment is nuanced, well-structured, and evaluates both strengths (e.g., research support, predictive application) and weaknesses (e.g., reductionism, determinism, conflicting evidence, measurement issues). (AO3)
- Offers a logical, coherent, and well-balanced overall conclusion.