Attitudes to language in texts for non-specialist audiences

Welcome to Language Discourses: Writing for Non-Specialists

Welcome to your complete revision guide for Paper 2, Section B: Language Discourses in AQA AS English Language (7701)!

In this section of the exam, you are asked to step out of the traditional academic essay format and become a real-world writer. You will write a text—such as an opinion article, a blog post, or an editorial—about a lively language debate, aimed at a non-specialist audience (everyday readers who have never studied linguistics). Don't worry if this sounds a bit daunting at first! Once you master how to balance your linguistic knowledge with an engaging writing style, this can easily become one of the most enjoyable and rewarding parts of the course.

Let's break down everything you need to know step-by-step.

1. The Exam Format & Assessment Objectives (AOs)

Understanding how the exam is marked is half the battle won. Here are the essential facts about Paper 2, Section B:

• Question Choice: You will choose one question from a choice of two.
• Word Count Guideline: Approximately 400–500 words.
• Total Marks: 40 marks, split completely evenly between two key skills:

AO2: Linguistic Knowledge and Concepts (20 Marks)
This tests your understanding of language debates, theories, and concepts. You need to show that you understand the mechanics of language attitudes (such as prescriptivism, descriptivism, and standard vs. non-standard forms).

AO5: Writing Expertise and Creativity (20 Marks)
This tests your ability to write effectively, creatively, and purposefully. You must adopt an appropriate persona (voice), engage your target audience, and use the structural features of your chosen form (like catchy headlines or clear sub-arguments).

Key Takeaway: Think of this section as a 50/50 balance. You need solid linguistics (AO2) delivered through brilliant, stylish writing (AO5)!

2. The Core Linguistic Concepts (AO2)

To score high marks in AO2, you need to be comfortable explaining and evaluating key language attitudes. Let's look at the core ideas you must know.

A. Prescriptivism vs. Descriptivism

This is the fundamental clash at the heart of nearly every public language debate.

• Prescriptivism: An attitude to language that dictates how language should or ought to be used. Prescriptivists focus on strict rules, "correctness", and grammar standards. They often view language change as decay, sloppy, or incorrect.
• Descriptivism: An approach that observes, describes, and analyses how language is actually used in real life by real people. Descriptivists do not judge language as "good" or "bad"; they simply examine how communication works in context.

Everyday Analogy: A prescriptivist is like a strict traffic warden enforcing rigid road rules. A descriptivist is like a traffic researcher observing how cars naturally navigate an intersection!

B. Standard vs. Non-Standard English

• Standard English (SE): The dialect of English that holds high social prestige. It is the form typically used in education, law, government, and formal publishing. Because of its social prestige, many people mistakenly believe it is the only "proper" form of English.
• Non-Standard English: Dialects and language varieties that use regional, social, or informal vocabulary and grammar (e.g., using double negatives or regional slang). Linguistically, non-standard varieties are just as rule-governed, systematic, and expressive as Standard English, but they lack the same social status.

C. Jean Aitchison’s Metaphors (1996)

In 1996, linguist Jean Aitchison identified three common metaphorical views that prescriptivists use to attack language change. Using these in your exam writing is an excellent way to show off your AO2 knowledge!

1. The Crumbling Castle View:
This is the belief that the English language was once a glorious, perfect building (a golden castle) that is now falling into ruin due to modern misuse.
The Linguistic Reality: Language was never in a single state of "perfection". Language is dynamic and continually adapts to suit the needs of its speakers.

2. The Damp Spoon View:
This represents the idea that language change happens because people are "lazy" or sloppy—like putting a wet spoon back into a sugar bowl.
The Linguistic Reality: Changes (such as abbreviations or contractions) often reflect speed and efficiency of communication, not moral or intellectual laziness.

3. The Infectious Disease View:
This is the view that "bad" language habits spread like a virus, catching on and "corrupting" innocent speakers against their will.
The Linguistic Reality: People adapt and adopt language features consciously or socially to fit into peer groups, build identity, or connect with others.

Memory Trick: Remember C-D-I — Castle, Damp spoon, Infection!

D. Deborah Cameron’s "Verbal Hygiene" (1995)

Linguist Deborah Cameron coined the term "Verbal Hygiene" in 1995. This concept explains that public debates about grammar, spelling, or "slang" are rarely just about words; they are an attempt by people to clean up, control, and order language to reflect their own moral, social, or political values.

Key Takeaway: Public language complaints are usually social anxieties in disguise. When people complain about "bad grammar", they are often expressing discomfort with changing cultural norms or younger generations.

3. Writing for Non-Specialists: Form, Register, and Tone (AO5)

Having brilliant knowledge is only half the task. Now, how do you present it in 400–500 words for an everyday reader?

A. The "Translation" Technique

A common pitfall is either using heavy academic jargon without explaining it, or dumbing down your writing so much that you mention no linguistics at all. The winning solution is to translate linguistic ideas into accessible language.

• Weak (Too Academic): "Prescriptivist gatekeeping enforces standardisation through structural elitism." (Alienates the general reader!)
• Weak (Too Oversimplified): "Some people don't like slang because they are mean." (Lacks linguistic depth!)
• Top Band (Translated & Engaging): "We all know that grammar stickler who winces at slang. Linguists call this a prescriptivist attitude—the urge to treat language like a fixed set of strict rules rather than a living, breathing tool."

B. Choosing Your Persona and Register

Before you write a single word, decide who you are and how you are speaking to the reader:

• Persona: Are you a passionate linguistics student? An inquisitive journalist? A tech-savvy blogger? Make your voice distinct and lively.
• Register: Aim for an engaging, semi-formal or journalistic register. Use rhetorical questions, vivid analogies, conversational hooks, and direct address ("you", "we") to draw the reader in.

C. Crafting a Clear Structure

Because you only have 400–500 words, a tight structure is vital:

1. Headline & Hook: An eye-catching title followed by an engaging opening that introduces the debate (e.g., a relatable everyday scenario).
2. Exploration / Argument: Introduce the prescriptivist reaction, challenge it using linguistic concepts (e.g., Aitchison's metaphors or Cameron's verbal hygiene), and provide a balanced viewpoint.
3. Resolution / Conclusion: A punchy summary of your stance that leaves the reader with a memorable final thought.

Key Takeaway: Keep your writing structured, friendly, and lively. Explain linguistic concepts with vivid examples so any reader can follow along.

4. Common Examiner Pitfalls to Avoid

Examiners frequently highlight the following mistakes in Paper 2 Section B. Make sure you don't fall into these traps!

• The "Academic Essay" Trap: Writing an essay with phrases like "In this essay I will conclude..." instead of adopting the requested format (such as an article with a headline or a blog with a conversational hook).
• The Omission of AO2 (Missing Theorists): Forgetting to include names and concepts. Seamlessly weave in your knowledge: "As the linguist Jean Aitchison noted..." or "What Deborah Cameron describes as 'verbal hygiene'...".
• Over-Simplification: Stripping out all linguistic insight. Remember, you are writing an informative piece about language—linguistic concepts must remain the core substance.
• Weak Persona: Writing in a bland, robotic voice that lacks personality or target-audience awareness.
• Wandering Structure: Jumping from one thought to another without a clear thread of argument.

5. Quick Summary & Checklist

Your Pre-Writing Checklist for Paper 2 Section B:

• Format Check: Do I have a clear headline/title and the right format (article/blog/editorial)?
• Audience Check: Is my tone accessible to a non-specialist reader without being overly simple?
• Persona Check: Is my voice clear, engaging, and consistent throughout?
• AO2 Check: Have I referenced key concepts (Prescriptivism, Descriptivism, Standard English) and theorists (Jean Aitchison's metaphors, Deborah Cameron's verbal hygiene)?
• Word Count Check: Is my piece focused and concise (around 400–500 words)?

With these core concepts and writing strategies at your fingertips, you are fully prepared to tackle any language discourse prompt in your AS exam!