Welcome to AS History: The Ascendancy of France (1660–1714)
Welcome to your study guide for Unit AS 2: Historical Conflict and Change (Option 2: The Ascendancy of France in Europe 1660–1714). Don't worry if this period seems full of complex wars, treaties, and French terms at first. We will break down every key theme step-by-step so you feel fully confident for your exam!
In this unit, we explore how King Louis XIV (the "Sun King") turned France into the superpower of Europe, how he governed at home, and why France's dominance faced severe strain and decline by the end of his long reign in 1714.
What does "Ascendancy" mean?
"Ascendancy" simply means being in a position of dominant power or control. Between 1660 and 1714, France was the central heavyweight around which all European politics revolved.
Let's dive into the four major themes required by the CCEA specification.
---Theme 1: France 1660–1689 – The Successes of Louis XIV
1. The Beginning of Personal Rule (1661)
For years, France was guided by chief ministers. But when Cardinal Mazarin died in 1661, the young Louis XIV shocked his court by declaring that he would govern alone with no Chief Minister. This marked the start of his Personal Rule.
To run France effectively, Louis relied on talented, hard-working ministers:
• Jean-Baptiste Colbert: Master of finances, trade, and the economy.
• The Marquis de Louvois: Master of war and military organisation.
2. Absolutism and Domestic Control
Louis XIV practiced Absolutism—the belief that the monarch holds ultimate, centralised authority. He cultivated the famous "Sun King" image, suggesting that just as the planets revolve around the sun, all of France revolved around him.
How did he maintain control across the country?
• The Intendants: Royal civil servants sent out into the French provinces. The intendants acted as the King's eyes and ears, enforcing royal laws, collecting information, and ensuring local elites stayed loyal.
• The Palace of Versailles: Officially becoming the seat of government in 1682, Versailles was far more than an opulent residence. It served a crucial political function: by requiring the nobility to live at court, Louis kept them under his direct supervision, distracting them with lavish court rituals and stripping away their ability to rebel.
3. Religious Policy: The Edict of Fontainebleau (1685)
Louis believed in the principle of "one king, one law, one faith". He viewed religious division as a threat to royal unity.
• In 1598, the Edict of Nantes had granted French Protestants (known as Huguenots) religious freedom.
• In 1685, Louis issued the Edict of Fontainebleau, which revoked (cancelled) the Edict of Nantes.
• Outcome: Huguenots faced intense persecution. Hundreds of thousands chose to emigrate, taking their valuable skills and trade to rival nations.
4. Early Military Successes
During the early decades of his personal rule, Louis pursued military glory and secure borders:
• The War of Devolution (1667–1668): Louis claimed the Spanish Netherlands on behalf of his wife, demonstrating French military might.
• The Dutch War (1672–1678): A conflict driven by rivalry with the Dutch Republic. It concluded with the Treaty of Nijmegen, marking the peak of Louis XIV's territorial gains and international prestige.
Theme 1 Key Takeaway: Between 1660 and 1689, Louis XIV successfully centralised royal power using intendants and Versailles, built a formidable army under Louvois, and expanded French borders through successful wars.
---Theme 2: French Finance and the Economy
1. Colbertism and Mercantilism
Wars and grand palaces require immense amounts of money. Louis's finance minister, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, applied an economic system known as Mercantilism (often called Colbertism in France).
The Core Idea: A nation's power depends on accumulating wealth (bullion/gold and silver) by maximizing exports and minimizing imports.
• State-Controlled Industries: Colbert established elite royal workshops, such as the famous Gobelins manufactory (producing tapestries and luxury furnishings for the Crown and export).
• Protectionism: Colbert placed high tariffs (import taxes) on foreign goods to encourage people to buy French products.
2. The Flaws in the French Tax System
Despite Colbert's reforms, the French financial system suffered from structural inequalities:
• The Taille: A direct land tax that fell almost exclusively on the peasants.
• The Gabelle: A deeply unpopular tax on salt, a vital preservative.
• Tax Exemptions: The wealthiest groups in society—the First Estate (Clergy) and the Second Estate (Nobility)—were largely exempt from direct taxes. This meant the financial burden fell on those least able to pay.
3. The Cost of War
By the late 1680s, the French treasury was under immense strain. Colbert's careful financial reserves were quickly swallowed up by two massive expenses:
• The continuous costs of maintaining the royal court and building Versailles.
• The enormous, unrelenting expense of funding Louis XIV's large-scale military campaigns.
Theme 2 Key Takeaway: Colbert's mercantilist policies created state industries like Gobelins, but tax exemptions for the nobility and clergy, combined with constant warfare, drained the treasury by the late 1680s.
---Theme 3: The Foreign Policy of Louis XIV (1688–1714)
1. Rising Resistance and the Grand Alliance
Louis XIV's expansionist foreign policy alarmed the rest of Europe. To stop French hegemony (total domination), European powers banded together in coalitions.
• Key Opponent: William III of Orange (Stadtholder of the Netherlands and later King of England), who became Louis's most steadfast adversary.
• The Grand Alliance: A major coalition formed to check French aggression and preserve the European balance of power.
2. Major Later Conflicts
• The Nine Years' War (1688–1697): A gruelling, expensive war fought against the Grand Alliance that stretched French resources to their limits.
• The War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714): Triggered by the death of the childless King Charles II of Spain. Louis accepted the Spanish crown for his grandson, Philip, sparking a continent-wide war against the Grand Alliance to prevent a Bourbon superpower.
3. The End of French Ascendancy
The long period of conflict was brought to a close by two major peace settlements:
• The Treaty of Utrecht (1713)
• The Treaty of Rastatt (1714)
What were the results of these treaties?
• Bourbon Success: Louis's grandson remained on the Spanish throne as King Philip V (a major diplomatic objective achieved).
• Separation of Crowns: The treaties strictly guaranteed that the French and Spanish crowns would never be united under one ruler.
• Preserved Borders: France retained its core borders, but its undisputed dominance over Europe was permanently checked.
Theme 3 Key Takeaway: Louis faced powerful coalitions led by William III. While the Treaties of Utrecht (1713) and Rastatt (1714) secured the Spanish throne for a Bourbon, they brought an end to France's unquestioned dominance in Europe.
---Theme 4: The Decline of France 1689–1714
1. Internal Pressures and Famines
While armies fought on distant borders, the French population suffered severe socio-economic misery at home caused by prolonged warfare and catastrophic climate events:
• The Famine of 1693–1694: Devastated rural populations, leading to mass starvation and economic collapse.
• The Great Winter and Famine of 1709: One of the coldest winters in European history ruined crops, froze transport, and deepened the financial misery of the French state.
2. Long-Term Fallout of the Edict of Fontainebleau
The persecution and flight of the Huguenots after 1685 caused lasting economic damage. The Huguenot population included skilled craftsmen, merchants, and financiers. Their departure took critical trade networks and industrial knowledge directly to France's Protestant rivals.
3. The Succession Crisis
Towards the end of his life, personal tragedy struck Louis XIV's family. A series of sudden illnesses led to the deaths of the Dauphin (the King's son) and other senior royal heirs. When Louis XIV finally died in 1715, the French crown passed to his five-year-old great-grandson, Louis XV, leaving the country facing an uncertain regency and deep financial debts.
Theme 4 Key Takeaway: Catastrophic famines (1693–94, 1709), the economic loss of the Huguenot workforce, heavy war debts, and a royal succession crisis marked the decline of French supremacy by 1714.
---Top Examiner Tips & Common Pitfalls to Avoid
When answering exam questions for CCEA AS Unit 2, keep these common traps in mind:
• Pitfall 1: Chronological Mix-ups!
Do not confuse the Dutch War (1672–1678) with the Nine Years' War (1688–1697). The Dutch War ended with the Treaty of Nijmegen at the height of Louis's success, whereas the Nine Years' War was a grinding conflict against the Grand Alliance.
• Pitfall 2: Treating Versailles Just as a Pretty Building
Examiners look for political analysis. Avoid spending paragraphs describing gold leaf or gardens. Focus on how Versailles was used to domesticate and control the nobility, neutralising domestic rebellion.
• Pitfall 3: Viewing the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) as a Total Defeat
Utrecht was a compromise, not a total French surrender. While French ascendancy ended and the crowns were kept separate, Louis achieved a key war aim: placing his Bourbon grandson (Philip V) on the throne of Spain.
• Pitfall 4: Overstating the Huguenot Flight
While the loss of Huguenot merchants and craftsmen harmed the economy, avoid claiming it caused an instant economic collapse on its own. It was one contributing factor alongside severe war taxation and natural famines.
Quick Revision Memory Aid: The "4 Fs" of Decline
To remember why France struggled between 1689 and 1714, think of the 4 Fs:
1. Finance: Heavy taxation (taille, gabelle), noble exemptions, and war debt depleted the treasury.
2. Famine: Terrible agricultural crises in 1693–1694 and 1709.
3. Fontainebleau: The 1685 Edict drove skilled Huguenot merchants and craftsmen abroad.
4. Foreign Coalitions: United opposition from William III and the Grand Alliance in the Nine Years' War and War of the Spanish Succession.